525: Humans vs Neanderthals | When Monsters Were Real and We Were Their Prey
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Humans are the apex predator. Not an apex predator, the apex predator. There's no animal on Earth that is stronger, more intelligent, or more adaptable than Homo sapiens. But telling the human story from the beginning is difficult. It was a time when two words defined our world: fear and violence. It was a time when we were not the apex predator. We were their prey.

We emerged from our caves during the day, hoping we wouldn't be hunted by the monsters in the woods. So vicious were these monsters, they still live in our myths and our nightmares.

They created a generational trauma embedded into our DNA over hundreds of thousands of years of evolution. These creatures were stronger, faster, and when it came to combat, more intelligent than we were. It's a miracle any of us are even here. This is the story of how modern humans conquered the monsters and won the battle for the world. But here's the thing. Those fearsome monsters defeated by humans were other humans. ♪♪

You are not who you think you are. Well, you're human, but we homo sapiens weren't the first type of humans. Just 50,000 years ago, various species of humans shared the planet with us at the same time, and they were everywhere. Denisovans settled in Russia. Floresiensis traveled all the way to Indonesia. Lusinensis traveled through Asia and all the way down through the Philippines.

And of course, there's us, Homo sapiens. We evolved in Africa, then moved into the Arabian Peninsula and spread to other parts of Asia, Australia, Europe, and the Americas. In time, Homo sapiens would colonize every habitable region on Earth. But that would take thousands of years, because there was something or someone standing in the way of our progress, another species of human.

a species of human that was stronger, faster, and more adaptable to extreme environments. This fearsome and fearless warrior species was the Neanderthal.

The Neanderthal was not the dumb, bumbling caveman you were taught in school. They were intelligent, had spoken language. They built large family groups that organized into tribes, that then organized into villages. They conquered fire. They created art. They created music. They created tools. But their specialty was creating weapons.

This species of superhuman warriors conquered Europe easily. They crossed the English Channel and conquered Britain. The warm coasts of the Mediterranean, too, were theirs. For 500,000 years, they devoured Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. They were the kings of the world, the ultimate warriors, the apex predator. ♪

Unlike other human species who ate mostly fruits, seeds, and grains, Neanderthals only ate meat. They were strong enough to take on animals that no other creature would touch. Cave bears, leopards, mammoths, even rhinos. But their favorite prey, their favorite food, was us.

Do you know the names of your great-grandparents? What about the names of their great-grandparents? I can only trace my family back a few generations. Royal families and nobles have records of their ancestors that go back hundreds of years, some over a thousand. The Chinese philosopher Confucius has one of the world's most extensive family trees. Today, Confucius has millions of living descendants. Ah, so does Wilt Chamberlain.

Documentation of Confucius's family goes back 2,500 years. Even those people are not who they think they are. 2,500 years is nothing. Our story is much older than that. Millions of years older. Seven million years ago, a new primate split off from chimpanzees. This was Coelanthropus chidensis.

Cyanthropus was a new type of species, the first hominin. Hominins include modern humans, extinct human species, and all of our immediate ancestors. Modern humans, Homo sapiens, emerged about 300,000 years ago. So what about all the time in between? Were there humans? Sure, lots of them. A million years after Cyanthropus was Orovan Tugadensis.

Orwan was still very ape-like in appearance. It was about the size of a chimp and had a small brain. But it started experimenting with walking upright. That was a big deal. Walking on two legs instead of four changed everything. Eh, legs are overrated. Well, bipedalism exposes less of the body to the sun, which helps with heat regulation. And walking on two legs instead of four is also much more energy efficient.

But the biggest advantage of all, it freed up the hands for carrying objects, food, and tools. Ardipithecus or ardi came next. They definitely walked upright. Early humans mostly ate leaves, fruits, nuts, and seeds, but ardi was one of the first human species to consume meat, though it was rare. I prefer medium rare. No, it was rare meaning uncommon.

Still, early humans were mostly vegetarian. Oh, really? Did they tie the fur on their head into ape buns? Maybe splash on a little patchouli? Do some hot monkey yoga? No, they didn't eat meat because animals were fast or dangerous. Usually both. Eating whatever was growing on trees and bushes was easier and much safer. Bunch of hippie monkey snowflakes.

Then comes a different species, Australopithecus. You might have heard of the ancient hominin named Lucy. She was Australopithecus afarensis.

A few million years later, Paranthropus emerged. These humans were bigger than their ancestors. On average, they were about four and a half feet tall. Their brains were getting larger too. Paranthropus was a tough creature. Powerful, fast, muscular. They ate fruit and vegetation too, but these hominins were now strong enough to catch and kill larger and larger animals, which they did.

Many scientists believe the high quality nutrients from larger game played a role in increasing their brain size. Paranthropists soon learned that they can catch even larger game if they banded together. Humans were now becoming social creatures. This is where human development begins to accelerate. By creating social groups, it allowed adult humans to teach skills to their children. Their technology was primitive, but it improved with each generation.

Homo habilis came next and had a much larger brain, almost 700 grams. They began to look more like us than apes. They lived in communities. They are the first known users of stone tools. Human species were advancing rapidly at this point. Next comes Homo erectus. Yeah, Homo erectus. Please don't be a child. Homo means man. Erectus means upright. I already know an erectus is upright.

Unless I have too much vodka. That's enough. All right, all right, all right. These jokes are too easy anyway.

Anyway, the upright humans had very large brains. They discovered and harnessed fire. They used sophisticated tools, built shelters, and lived in communities. They innovated advanced hunting techniques like herding, ambushing, and setting traps. They were highly adaptable to any climate, warm or cold. And so Erectus is the first human species to leave Africa.

Wow, that is a big erectus. Please stop. At some point in school, a teacher showed you this chart. This is the evolution of man, right? Wrong.

Sapiens didn't evolve directly from Erectus. Erectus launched the species Hydrobrigensis. It was at this point where early humans learned a new skill, a skill that would help shape the world for future generations and shapes our world still. This new skill was violence.

When hominins evolved from chimps, they weren't much different than monkeys. But over millions of years, they learned to walk on two legs, freeing up their hands. Their brains grew much larger, allowing them to learn skills. They organized into tribes, developed simple language, and were able to pass on knowledge, information, and skills to their offspring. Heidelbergensis branched off two new species. One of those was us, Homo sapiens. The other branch was, well...

Lord of the Rings. Did you just say Lord of the Rings? Yep. From Heidelbergensis came Floresiensis. They're commonly called hobbits. They were about three and a half feet tall and had large, hairy, flat feet, just like a hobbit. And they lived in the Shire? Uh, no. These hobbits lived deep in the jungles of Indonesia. Uh, no. You're thinking of Tom Bombadil. No, he lived in the forest. Ah, that's right. Can I get back to this now? You shall not!

I'm just kidding, go ahead. For over 200,000 years, several different species of humans shared the Earth. Hobbits, Denisovans, Heidelbergensis, Homo erectus, and quite a few more. But then, about 70,000 years ago, all human species started dying out, one by one.

Finally, all species of humans went extinct, except for two, us and Neanderthals. Today, most Neanderthals are depicted looking very much like we do, a little shorter, a little stockier. Maybe they have a larger eyebrow ridge. But for the most part, you'll find picture after picture of cheerful looking Neanderthals, big smiles, rosy cheeks. But there's evidence that they didn't look human at all. That's where Lord of the Rings comes into play.

A new study shows that Neanderthals were real-life orcs, and they were terrifying. Huge, hulking beasts with thick fur, cat-like eyes, and physical strength far greater than any Homo sapien. Their bones were much heavier than ours to support their enormous muscular strength. One of the most characteristic features of the Neanderthals is the exaggerated massiveness of their trunk and limb bones.

All of the preserved bones suggest a strength seldom attained by modern humans. A healthy Neanderthal male could lift an average NFL linebacker over his head and throw him through the goalposts. Their limbs were stocky, their noses were large and broad, their jaws were designed for eating meat, any meat, even each other's.

Neanderthals were smart, organized, and experts at war. Their hunting parties became small armies. In close combat, a Neanderthal could easily overpower five or six modern humans. No other species had a chance. Wherever Neanderthals went, all other human species in the area went extinct. Except for us. We fled. We surrendered our land to the monsters and retreated.

But wherever we went, Neanderthals followed. Neanderthals discovered that we were a valuable resource. Our species was useful to them in two ways. One, our men were good for eating. And two, our women were good for mating.

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No time in human history was more violent than when we shared the Earth with Neanderthals. If your ancestors were alive today, they'd describe the most formidable beings, emerging from the darkness in the dead of night, huge muscles sitting atop a skeleton 25 times more dense than our own. Their skin was thick, too tough to penetrate with most arrowheads. These creatures evolved during our last ice age and

and migrated from Northern Europe. Their bodies were covered in black fur. Their backs were hunched like a gorilla, but they weren't slow. Neanderthals were agile, much faster than us, despite our smaller size and lighter weight.

Their broad noses evolved to give them an extremely sensitive sense of smell and taste. They could detect our scent for miles. A Neanderthal's eyes were enormous, sunken with split pupils like a cat's eyes, allowing them to see extremely well in the dark.

Like nocturnal monkeys today, who also have split pupils, Neanderthals' eyes contained a layer of tissue called tapetum lucidum. When you see an animal's eyes shining at night, you're seeing the reflection of this special tissue. It's a type of night vision.

Light enters the eye and passes through the retina. Topetum lucidum acts like a mirror and reflects more light back into the retina. This biological adaptation is seen in many different animals: cats, dogs, deer, nocturnal birds, and many more. But not us. We can't see in the dark. But Neanderthals could.

Some psychologists believe this is why so many people are afraid of the dark. It's a generational trait, a defense mechanism encoded into our DNA after thousands of years of being hunted at night. But the mouths of Neanderthals were the most terrifying part of all. Their teeth were twice as big as ours, with a bite force that could crush human bone.

Neanderthals built communities. They developed technologies used mostly for hunting. Hunting was a Neanderthal's most important activity. A Neanderthal's size meant they needed a huge amount of food. Their diets were 97% meat. Each fully grown adult had to eat more than four pounds of flesh every day to survive. And they didn't care where the meat came from.

Aside from hunting mammoths, rhinos, bison, and giant cave bears, Neanderthals also hunted each other. Tribes would raid villages. Rival Neanderthal groups would not only kill their enemies, but eat them as well. And there's plenty of evidence of this. Fossilized bones show clear signs of butchery, the Neanderthal's favorite food, human marrow.

Neanderthals were so powerful and confident, they hunted and ate cave lions. Cave lions weighed more than 700 pounds. Our ancestors didn't go anywhere near big cats, but a cave lion was no match for a Neanderthal. Same with bears. Our ancestors ran away from bears. Neanderthals grabbed spears and ran toward them. And it wouldn't take long before those spears were aimed at us.

Around 125,000 years ago, our ancestors settled the Levantine region. The Levantine is now East Africa, Israel, and Western Asia. The Levantine sites show our ancestors developing tools, creating jewelry, and caring for the sick. They lived in tribes. They developed agriculture. They were physically recognizable as modern humans. They were building a complex, structured society. They were on their way to building an early civilization.

But then something happened. A new ice age had arrived. This was a period of rapid glacial growth. The deserts advanced and the forests of Europe disappeared under ice. As the climate got colder, Neanderthals migrated south.

Their territories were expanding. Their hunting grounds were now advancing into the land occupied by us. We were also dealing with the shifting climate, and our bodies weren't developed to deal with it. We were slender. We didn't have fur or thick skin to protect us from the cold. The Neanderthals' bodies were designed to create heat. Homo sapiens are designed to lose it.

And instead of sharing our land with us, Neanderthals did what all humans do, no matter the species, dominate and conquer. The Neanderthals had no choice. These other humans, these skinny, weak, hairless creatures, they had to go.

Around 80,000 years ago, the human fossil record started to disappear and things grew colder. Most archaeologists attribute the decline of the human population to climate change. Climate change? Here we go again. Just build a nuclear power plant, you moron. This was 80,000 years ago. Excuses, excuses. I don't think you're being fair. Don't make me drop a how dare you. Please don't. We go to that well a little too much. Pfft.

But humans didn't disappear from the area because it got cold. They disappeared because they were hunted. Fossils of Neanderthal bones are still found there, but no human bones. Why not? Well, because Neanderthals ate them. You would think that Neanderthals and modern humans being so much alike would learn to get along. Ha!

In "On the Origin of Species," Darwin says that killing each other is not only natural behavior, it's obvious. "Competition will generally be most severe between those forms which are most related to each other. Varieties of the same species, having nearly the same structure, constitution, and habits, come into the severest competition with each other."

Each new variety or species during formation will press hardest on its nearest kindred and exterminate them.

And they almost did. Neanderthals hunted Homo sapiens to the point of near extinction on multiple occasions. We know this because the genetic variation within Homo sapiens is the lowest of all primate species. The genetic difference between human to human, no matter your race or ethnicity, is about 0.1%. That's how closely related we are. So what does that mean?

Around 80,000 years ago, when our species and Neanderthals were violently competing for resources, we nearly went extinct. But the Neanderthal population was doing just fine. But us, Homo sapiens? We were down to 50 people. One study says it could have been as low as 40. That's it. Only 40 or 50 people left on Earth. Oh, Bill Gates would have loved this.

There's a small group of chimps in West Africa made up of about 50 individuals. They're all from the same family. They have about twice as much genetic variability as all humans. On average, chimpanzees have a genetic variation of 1.2% compared to our 0.1%. And chimps are our closest relatives.

We have such low genetic variability because we came within inches of extinction. We had to start over with just a few dozen families. And here's how it happened. I want you to imagine the world 80,000 years ago. Maybe you're 10 or 11 years old. You live in a wooden hut with your family. Your hut is one of many, maybe 30 in all. You live on the shores of a lake surrounded by a forest. In the morning, you're sent to gather fresh water.

Your father and brothers are up early to catch small game like birds and rabbits, which they bring back to the village. Your uncle is at the lake with some other men gathering shellfish. If they're lucky, they'll find a nice fat turtle. Your mother and the other women butcher and cook the meat. There's a clearing nearby. You and the other children gather fruits and berries. You store them in a cool cave nearby. Though nobody's looking, you help yourself to a few berries.

You are a key part of a community. Your skills are depended upon not just by your family, but by the rest of your tribe. For your entire life, you've never gone more than a mile or two away from your village. Neither have your parents or their parents. It's a communal existence. Simple. Peaceful.

But your favorite part of the day is after sunset. A warm fire is built and the village gathers around to sing, laugh, and tell stories late into the night. Your favorite stories are the scary ones. The tribal elders tell tales of monsters who lurk in the forest, stealing children who venture too far.

A little time goes by. Now you're in your teenage years. Your duties change. Maybe you join the hunting party. Maybe you help cook or sew. Maybe you learn the art of healing through herbal medicine. Though your life has changed so much these past few years, the stories stay the same. Now it's your own father with his long gray beard telling tales of the monsters in the woods. You laugh as the children cringe in fear as you once did not so long ago.

Suddenly, your father stops talking and angles his head. He's heard something. There's a snap from the forest nearby. A broken branch. The rustling of dry brush. Something heavy is in the woods. It can't be an animal. The fire burns bright and hot. Even the biggest predator wouldn't dare come close.

Then there's more rustling of brush. Whatever's making the noise, it's coming closer. And it's big and heavy. More branches snap. This time from a different direction. There's more than one. From somewhere, a woman screams in terror. Everyone around the fire is frozen trying to locate the sound. The screaming doesn't stop. Another starts. This time, it's a man.

He sounds like he's crying for help. His screaming suddenly becomes a gurgling and he goes quiet. The woman's screams are now more distant. She's being carried away. You look at your father and scan the faces of the men around the fire. They're afraid. They grab their spears, which are always kept close by. Then you see a shadow. It looks like a man, but it's the biggest man you've ever seen.

All your life, your village has traded with and communicated with other villages in the area. These events have always been peaceful. Sometimes they were celebrations. None of this made any sense.

But then the man took a step forward toward the light. It's no man, at least not a man like you've ever seen. He's not that tall, but he's so wide and muscular he seems unnaturally large. His back is hunched. His skin looks thick and leathery. Patches of his body are covered in thick fur. He looks right at you and shows enormous teeth. Then you realize he's smiling. He's wiping something sticky off his chin. Blood.

His hulking frame takes slow, lumbering steps toward you. He doesn't need to run. He knows he'll catch you. It takes a moment to realize what you're seeing, but it finally clicks. The elders of your tribe weren't telling tales to control your childhood behavior. Sometime many, many years ago, we'd been here before.

Out of nowhere, a man from your tribe, your uncle, charges the creature. Your uncle swings a club at the beast. It ducks, steps to the side, grabs your uncle by his throat, and lifts him off the ground with one hand. Something this big shouldn't be able to move this fast. You're frozen in place as your uncle dangles in midair, arms and legs flailing. The creature squeezes. There's an audible crack. It throws your uncle's lifeless body 20 feet and turns its gaze back on you.

Then more of these creatures swamp the village. It's mayhem. Violent mayhem. You're trying not to panic, but you're frozen in place. Your father runs past you toward the chaos, wielding his spear. You go to follow, but he turns to tell you no.

Then you see a stone spearhead emerge from the front of his chest. He winces and looks right at you. In his eyes, you can see the anger, the fear, and the love. You hear him whisper, "The cave," as he takes his final breath. Then you run. As you get farther from the village, you still hear the screams, but they're becoming more faint. Then the screaming stops.

You don't dare look over your shoulder, but you can tell by the reflection of the leaves that the entire village, your home, is on fire. Everyone you love, everyone you've ever known, is gone.

Evidence shows that for over 100,000 years, Neanderthals and humans were at constant war. Signs of prehistoric warfare are easy to spot. A swift, powerful club strike to the head was a common killing method. Prehistoric Homo sapiens often had skull fractures indicating blunt force trauma. Neanderthals had similar injuries. A parry fracture is another sign of warfare. A parry fracture is a lower arm break from deflecting attacks.

Neanderthals had many instances of broken arms. Young Neanderthal males frequently suffered trauma and death. Their average lifespan was about 40. You'd be a village elder. And then some.

While some injuries might have occurred during hunting, the patterns indicate intertribal warfare. This warfare was small-scale yet intense, marked by prolonged conflicts. It primarily involved guerrilla-style raids and ambushes with occasional larger battles. War also influences territorial boundaries. There's proof that Neanderthals not only engaged in war, but mastered it.

For 100,000 years, modern humans tried to encroach on Neanderthal land. And for 100,000 years, humans were held back.

But to the victors of war go the spoils. When Neanderthals won a battle with humans, the spoils were gruesome. Men were taken as food. We know this from fossil records. The fate of human women was worse. Neanderthals and humans were sexually compatible. Today, people of non-African descent carry about 2% of Neanderthal DNA. People of African descent also carry some Neanderthal DNA. And you could bet much of it wasn't placed there by choice.

It's common knowledge that Neanderthals and humans interbred, but that sounds more consensual than it was. The full story is that Neanderthals hunted us for food, hunted us for fun, and hunted us for sex. There's a lot of evolutionary evidence of this that's interesting, but it's not very family-friendly. So if you want to know more, ask me during a live stream, but please put the kids to bed first.

Now the story I told earlier took place about 80,000 years ago. Around that time Neanderthals expanded into and conquered the Middle East. And they held that land for over 30,000 years. That is a long, long time. This is where the most recent bottleneck in our genetic variation occurs. Homo sapiens conquered by Neanderthals were knocked down to maybe even as few as 40 or 50 individuals.

As our villages burned, our men were slaughtered. Everyone else was enslaved or eaten. But a few of us got away. We went high into the mountains, into cave systems we've known for generations. And like that young human fled to the caves to escape slaughter, a few others did too. And this happened all over the area.

In previous episodes, I've talked about cave systems like Derinkuyu in Turkey. Derinkuyu is an underground city capable of housing at least 20,000 people and their livestock for months, maybe even years. It's about 300 feet below Earth's surface, and it connects to a whole series of underground cities across the area, some even bigger than Derinkuyu. Link below if you want to learn more. Now, for the most part, we have no idea how old these underground villages and cities are.

Building them to hide from Neanderthals makes perfect sense. Humans lived in caves in Israel as far back as 210,000 years ago. Throughout history, we've used these cave systems as a refuge against attack. And we used them again the last time our species was hunted to near extinction. I'd love to tell you a story about how our ancestors rose up from these dark, murky places, beating the Neanderthals in an epic bloody battle, emerging victorious as Earth's apex predator.

But that's not what happened. When our numbers were the lowest they'd ever been, perhaps one or two tribes, a few scattered individuals, nature, the universe, whatever you want to call it, came to our rescue with fire and brimstone. Right around the time Neanderthals started disappearing from the fossil record, the ground beneath Italy started shaking.

The land splintered across an area of almost 70 square miles. The entire surface of the earth melted into the caldera below, which spewed out enough debris to become the largest volcanic event in the Mediterranean for 200,000 years.

Known as the Campanian-Ignombrite eruption, it was made up of superheated gas, volcanic ash, and lava. No one knows the true extent of its devastation, but it caused an immediate and extreme ice age throughout Eastern Europe into Asia, maybe even the whole world. The entire Levantine region was engulfed. Almost everything Neanderthals needed died. Their food suffocated. Their water was toxic. The dead became food for the survivors.

Animal species disappeared overnight. The giant buffalo went extinct. The woolly mammoth, step bison, water buffalo, the giant musk ox, giant deer, all gone. The cave wolf disappeared, most types of bear, all types of elephants, several rodents, and many more. These animals also happened to be the primary food source for Neanderthals. I want no more tasty humans to eat.

As the Earth around us burned, our ancestors went deeper underground. We took with us almost 40,000 years of knowing how to survive the constant threat of death. Some Neanderthals survived, but their numbers were dwindling fast.

But Neanderthals could survive by mating with modern humans, right? Well, wrong. Nature intervened there too. As you would expect, most interbreeding was male Neanderthal and female human. They were biologically compatible, but not without problems. Male hybrid children were often sterile and couldn't pass on their Neanderthal DNA. Only female hybrids could.

Human females, according to studies, preferred to mate with a human male, not a Neanderthal. Unless the Neanderthal has money. Interbreeding continued, but each generation of hybrids was more human than Neanderthal. But even though the first, let's call them interbreeding events, were tragic, the results were positive.

By adding their DNA to ours, we created stronger immune systems. We became more adaptable to non-African climates. Our bodies became stronger and faster. Usain Bolt, look at the time, 9-5-8, world record! Technically, Neanderthals are extinct. But that's not entirely true, is it?

Almost everyone on Earth carries a little bit of Neanderthal with them. If these traits were harmful or made us weaker, natural selection would have removed them from our genetic pool. But they didn't. Neanderthals were vicious predators who assaulted and devoured every animal they found, including us. But they were also resilient. So resilient they're with us still. And now we benefit from their resilience. So like it or not, Neanderthals are here to stay.

Neanderthals are real, but how much of this story is true? Well, actually, a lot of it. Most of today's episode comes from a book by Danny Vendramini called Them and Us, How Neanderthal Predation Created Modern Humans. It's a great read, and I linked it below. I also linked to Danny's sub stack where he summarizes the book. Now, he makes good arguments, but his research is controversial, and it is not the mainstream view.

For example, the human population may have been down to 50 in parts of the Middle East, but Homo sapiens were already on islands all around the world and had been for thousands of years. Now, when it comes to the physical description of Neanderthals, what is there to debate? We know they had large eyes because their skulls had huge sockets. In fact, almost everything about the physicality of Neanderthals that I presented in this episode is based on physical evidence from bone and fossil records. Almost everything.

We don't know for sure if they had fur, but we do know Homo sapiens are the only primates without thick fur. But we still have a thin layer of it. Some people have a thinner layer than others. What's that supposed to mean? Have you looked in a mirror? You should rename this channel Journal of a Receding Hairline. I think you're exaggerating. I got two words for you. Pro-pisha. Anyway...

Every animal alive during the Ice Age had thick fur, and no Neanderthal needles or needlework has ever been uncovered. So either evidence of Neanderthal clothing is yet to be found, or they really were covered in fur, as suggested in the book. We also know we coexisted with Neanderthals. We know we fought them for 100,000 years, and we know they spent most of that time winning.

But eventually the tide turned. Nobody knows for sure how this happened. Modern humans were probably more intelligent than Neanderthals. But that's debatable. They had the same size brain that we do. Our eventual victory could have been a combination of luck and survival. We were hiding in caves, but we weren't idle. We were intelligent and we were industrious. We knew that if we were going to take our land back, we need to innovate. Neanderthals were winning. They didn't have to innovate anything.

So it's possible that while waiting, planning, and building our numbers, an early human invented a bow and arrow and other ranged weapons. We were no match for Neanderthals up close. But if we could attack and harass them from a distance, then retreat to our caves, we would have an advantage. Then there was the Campanian-Ignombrite eruption in Italy. You can't overestimate the power and devastation of this eruption.

There were pyroclastic flows that were over 3,300 feet high. They flowed over mountains. The eruption blasted out six of these flows. All life within 60 miles of the crater was destroyed. The ground and water was covered in up to four feet of volcanic debris in some places. Debris has been found as far away as 1,200 miles from the crater. And every time scientists dig up new information on the eruption, it gets bigger.

and it's overdue for another eruption. If you want me to do an episode on that, let me know, but be warned, it's scary. No matter how it all ended for Neanderthals, one thing's for sure, we mated with them, willingly or otherwise. Everything I mentioned about the impact of their DNA on modern humans is accurate as far as we know.

As far as Neanderthals having dark skin and dark fur, that's doubtful and debatable. We know that fair skin and blonde hair evolved in Northern Europe, Neanderthal territory. There's also a theory that Neanderthal DNA created redheads. Oh, is that why they're crazy? Be nice, that theory is still being debated. What's the debate? They're crazy. No, the theory is being debated. It's no...

The Neanderthal Theory. But after all this violence, we have something to celebrate. There was no guarantee Homo sapiens would rule the world, and we almost didn't. But here we are. We made it. We are now the apex predator of our planet. But there is a theory that Neanderthals survived.

Still vicious, still powerful, still covered in hair, still lurking in the dark woods. But they evolved to be much bigger, much taller. This theory says they've become Bigfoot. That's a different episode.

Thank you so much for hanging out with us today. My name is AJ. That's Hecklefish. This has been the Y-Files. If you had fun or learned anything, do them a favor, like, subscribe, comment, share. That stuff really helps us out. And like most topics we cover on the channel, today's is recommended by you. So if there's a story you'd like to see or learn more about, go to the Y-Files dot com slash tips. And remember, the Y-Files is also a podcast. Twice a week, I post deep dives into the stories we cover here on the channel.

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up on time. You also get access to merch that's only available to members. Plus, you get two private live streams every week just for you. My camera's on. Your camera's on. We get to talk together. It's nice. It's sweet. You'll like it. Another great way to support the channel is grab something from the Y-File store. Grab a Hagglefish t-shirt or stick one of your fists in these fistable coffee mugs or get an animal talking Hagglefish talking dial or play some Go Hagglefish cards while you're drinking out of your

having a hot game with a squeezy head of this tugging fish style toy. That's going to do it. Until next time, be safe, be kind, and know that you are appreciated. Oh, oh.

No, it never ends.

I'm a tone.

And his name was Cold And I can't believe I'm dancing with the fish Heckle fish on Thursday nights, Wednesday Jays too And the white box has three eyes All I ever wanted was to just hear the truth So the white The Mothman sightings and the solar storm still come To have got the Secret City underground

Mysterious number stations, planets are both two Project Stargate, and what the Dark Watchers found In a simulation, don't you worry though The Black Knight said a lot, he told me so I can't believe the fish, heck of fish On Thursday nights when they chase you And the wild birds all make me all through the night

Oh

Because she is a camel and camels love the feeling is right

Wasting time. Getting lucky. Getting lucky. Yeah.