Muhammad Ali vs. The Draft | Heavyweight | 1
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It's the afternoon of June 20th, 1967, inside a federal courtroom in Houston, Texas.

25-year-old Muhammad Ali is sitting at the defendant's table, holding his head in his hands, waiting for a jury to decide his fate.

Over the last five years, Ali's life has changed completely. He went from being the heavyweight champion of the world to getting stripped of his title and charged with a felony. As a member of the Nation of Islam, he opposes the Vietnam War on religious grounds and refused to be drafted into the U.S. Army. His claim for conscientious objector status angered many, but Ali is no stranger to criticism.

His brash attitude and unconventional boxing style have earned him his fair share of detractors, and this trial has been no different. For the last two days, he's sat at the defense table and watched the government prosecutor attack his character, suggesting he's lying about his religious beliefs to avoid military service.

The judge seems hostile, too. When the prosecution described the Nation of Islam as a militant organization, Ali spoke up to defend his religion, but the judge reprimanded him for speaking out of turn. Ali isn't used to being muzzled like this, and it's infuriating. And now that jury deliberations have begun, there's nothing he can do but wait.

Ali's attorney, a 55-year-old white Texan named Hayden Covington, pats him on the shoulder. "How you doing, champ? I'm not the champ anymore. Maybe not officially. But hey, you're a champ for putting up with all this. You think they're gonna lock me up? Why would you think that? We've been doing great here. But for one thing, that judge hates me. He nearly bit my head off yesterday when I tried to defend the nation. Yeah, he's an unreason of a gun."

But don't worry about him. This is a jury trial. They're the ones deciding whether you're guilty or innocent. But the jury's all white.

Half of them look like they just came straight from the country club. That doesn't mean they can't be fair. I know you believe that, but I'm not so sure. I think they look at me and see a black man who doesn't know when to keep his mouth shut. I think they want to make an example out of me. Look, I've won conscientious objector cases at the Supreme Court three dozen times. Your case is as strong as any. I just want this all to be over so I can get back to boxing. Get my title back. You will.

Ali turns to see the bailiff entering the room. He announces that everyone needs to rise for the judge. But Ali is confused as he glances at the clock on the wall. It's only been 21 minutes since the jury left to deliberate. He leans over to Covington. What's going on? I don't know. The jury must have a verdict. That fast? You know what that means.

The courtroom rises as the judge enters. He sits down at his bench and then announces that the jury has reached a decision. The bailiff leads the jury in, six men, six women, all white. Ali scans their faces, but most won't meet his eyes, and the knot in his gut tightens.

The judge invites the foreman to read the decision, and a middle-aged woman in a green sweater stands up. She unfolds a piece of paper from her pocket, hesitates, and then reads the verdict. Guilty. Ali feels Covington patting his shoulder, reminding him that they'll appeal immediately, that the case is far from over. But Ali just closes his eyes. His livelihood and reputation have already been stolen from him, and now his very freedom is threatened as well.

If I come off of the GLP-1, it's not going to automatically make my weight yo-yo back.

Hey, it's A. Martinez. I work on a news show. And yeah, the news can feel like a lot on any given day. But you just can't ignore las noticias when important world-changing events are happening. So that is a new show.

From Wondery, I'm Lindsey Graham, and this is American Scam. In 1967, at the height of his boxing career, Muhammad Ali made a decision that shocked the country. He refused induction into the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War, declaring himself a conscientious objector.

Ali cited his membership in the Nation of Islam, a sect of Muslims that preached nonviolence, personal pride, and economic self-reliance for Black people. But the sect had already stirred up controversy. Its fiery Black nationalist rhetoric frightened many Americans, white and Black. But Ali, who changed his name from Cassius Clay Jr. after joining the nation, found comfort in the meaning of the group and claimed that as his inspiration for refusing the draft.

Ali took his stand at the height of the civil rights era, and his draft resistance soon became a powerful symbol of the movement, even though his personal and religious beliefs often put him at odds with civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King. Ali's struggle also became associated with growing opposition to the Vietnam War, as well as to the draft itself. The clashes over Vietnam and civil rights led to the most politically tumultuous period America had seen since the Civil War,

and Muhammad Ali found himself at the center of it. As a young boxer, eager to take on bigger and higher profile matches, Ali learned how to use his outspoken persona to make a name for himself. But his criticisms of the war and racial injustice, as well as his membership in the Nation of Islam, put him at odds with mainstream America. So when he refused to serve in the United States Army, he embarked on the biggest fight of his career, one that would take his case all the way to the Supreme Court.

This is Episode 1, Heavyweight. It's February 1961. Nineteen-year-old Cassius Clay is sitting in the living room of his family home in Louisville, Kentucky. He's watching a boxing match on TV with his father, Cassius Clay Sr., and it's putting him in a foul mood.

Clay Jr. has been boxing since he was 12. He's worked his way up through the amateur ranks with a virtually undefeated record, and just last summer, he won a gold medal at the Rome Olympics. He's proud of these accomplishments and feels like he's already proven that he has what it takes to be one of the world's best boxers. Yet big, televised fights like the one he's watching right now seem perpetually out of reach. Clay Jr.

Clay squints at the TV, trying to understand what these boxers have that he doesn't. But as he watches them slowly fumble around the ring, without any power behind their punches, he feels confident that he could knock them out easily. It should be him in that ring. So Clay stands up, walks over to the TV, and starts flipping channels, looking for something else to watch. He lands on a pro wrestling match.

But his father groans in protest, saying wrestling is fake. Clay ignores him. He's not much of a wrestling fan either, but he's too annoyed to watch any more boxing. So he plops back down on the couch, not expecting much of a show. But when he sees one of the wrestlers emerge from the tunnel before a match, Clay's eyes go wide. A giant white man with platinum blonde hair struts toward the ring, wearing a sequined robe and high-heeled shoes.

The announcer introduces him as Gorgeous George, and when he hops into the ring, he starts jumping around and shouting, mugging for the camera. The crowd goes wild. Half of them are booing while the other half are screaming his name, but everyone is fixated on Gorgeous George.

Clay's parents have always told him that as a black man in America, he should keep his head down and avoid making waves. Here in Kentucky, where many movie theaters and restaurants are still segregated, being black and outspoken can get you beaten up, arrested, or even killed. But Clay is a boxer. And in the ring, being meek and humble can only hold you back. So Clay decides that from now on, he's going to incorporate a little gorgeous George into his persona.

And for the rest of the televised wrestling match, Clay studies Gorgeous George's every move. He watches what he does to get the crowd riled up and how his showmanship seems to throw his opponents off guard. And as he watches, a smile creeps across his face. What Gorgeous George is doing also looks fun. Clay's goal is to be the best fighter in the world. And to do that, he has to fight the best. And he won't be able to do that unless he makes a name for himself.

So from now on, he's not going to hold anything back. He's going to be his proud, boastful self, and if some people hate him for that, then so be it. Clay's instincts about how to make a name for himself prove correct. He starts to let loose, mocking his opponents and declaring himself the prettiest boxer in the world. His showboating attracts attention in the press, which convinces promoters to feature him in better, more lucrative bouts. Clay quickly proves that he belongs on these bigger stages too.

With his devastating combination of size, speed, and strength, Clay plows through his opponents. By the end of 1961, he's undefeated in his first 10 professional matches, and he has a whole team of white Louisville businessmen managing his career.

To help him reach his full potential, they arrange for Clay to work with legendary trainer Angelo Dundee in his gym in Miami, Florida. Clay spends his days there running, skipping rope, and sparring. He also packs on pounds of muscle and adds more knockouts to his record.

But even as his focus remains on boxing, Clay feels like there's something still missing from his life. Greater sense of purpose, something that might give his life meaning outside the ring. And one morning in early 1962, he stumbles across something that feels like an answer. That day, he's strolling down the street after a training run when he hears someone call out to him.

Clay turns to see a short, slender black man wearing a seersucker suit and a radiant grin. He's standing on the corner next to a card table selling newspapers. He beckons Clay over and introduces himself as Sam Saxon. He hands Clay a copy of the newspaper, which is called Muhammad Speaks, and encourages Clay to look inside. Clay starts flipping through the paper, and a four-panel cartoon inside catches his eye. It shows a black slave kneeling and praying.

A speech bubble with words and some other language is emerging from his mouth. Then in the next panel, a white plantation owner jumps out from behind a tree and whips the black man for praying in a foreign tongue. The enslaved man cowers and swears that he was praying to Jesus, and the plantation owner sneers and says, "'That's better. Just say what I teach you and I might let you live.'"

Clay learned about slavery in school and from his parents, but he's never seen it portrayed quite like this. He's repulsed by the violence and subjugation, but also fascinated. He looks up at Saxon. What's he saying in this cartoon? The slave man? He's praying. In Arabic. He's bowing toward the east, toward Mecca, the spiritual home of Islam. East is also where Africa is, the homeland of all black people.

So this is your paper? You wrote it yourself? Oh no. The paper is written and printed by members of my religion. The Nation of Islam. We're Muslims, but we cater to black people. Yeah, I've heard about you. I saw one of your ministers preaching on a street corner back home in Louisville. I like some of what he said, but my parents raised me Christian. They say I shouldn't listen to you Muslims. We get that a lot. But the nation saved me more than any church ever did.

Truth is, I used to be a two-bit hoodlum in Atlanta, abusing drugs, hustling in pool halls. The nation straightened me out. It gave me discipline and pride in who I am. Are you a preacher? I shine shoes for a living, but we're all preachers. We live to spread the faith. You ever thought about your name, champ? My name? It's Cassius Clay. I know who you are. I'm a boxing fan.

But that's not your real name. That's your slave name. What do you mean? Whenever your great-great-grandfather came over here, some white slave owner gave him his last name. But that's not African. Isn't that sad? 20 million black people in America don't even know their real names. But members of the Nation of Islam, they pick their own name. If that's true, then why are you called Sam Saxon? That doesn't sound African. Well, you got me there.

It has to come to you like a revelation, or it's bestowed upon you by one of our leaders. God just hasn't revealed my true name yet, but he will. What else does the nation teach? Self-reliance. We're building our own community, a black community. We don't need handouts from the white man. Black people are the original people of Earth, and we can do everything on our own.

Clay digs into his pocket for a dollar and hands it to Saxon. I'd like to buy a copy of your paper, and after I've had a chance to read it, maybe we can talk some more. I'd like that, champ. This is my corner, so come back and see me anytime. Clay shakes Saxon's hand, then heads back toward the gym, clutching his copy of Muhammad Speaks.

Hearing Saxon talk about the Nation of Islam was invigorating. Clay's always been angry about the treatment of Black people in America. But he's never heard someone talk about it in this way. This group, the Nation of Islam, seem to be forging their own path, regardless of how they're treated by white people. And that's exactly what Clay wants to do, too. The very first time Cassius Clay visits a Nation of Islam mosque in Miami, he decides he wants to convert. Everything the nation preaches speaks powerfully to him.

He especially likes their message on social issues. Unlike many Christian civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr., the nation isn't interested in fighting for desegregation. They believe that black people should build their own communities where they can lift each other up and feel proud of their blackness.

This is one of many reasons why the Nation of Islam is controversial in mainstream America. Many Americans, both white and black, dislike the group because it breaks away from Christianity and opposes racial integration. They dismiss its members as gangsters and criminals because the religion recruits heavily in prisons. And many are uncomfortable with some Nation of Islam doctrines that are openly hostile to white people. But Clay ignores the criticism and begins to practice the religion in earnest.

He gives up drinking and stops eating pork. He begins praying to the East five times daily, and he grows close with both the nation's leader, Elijah Muhammad, and its most famous adherent, activist Malcolm X. Soon, Clay feels spiritually fulfilled for the first time in his life, and this sense of inner contentment seems to help his boxing career, too.

Between 1962 and 1964, he continues his unbeaten streak. And before long, Clay's managers get a call. Clay will be given a shot at the heavyweight championship in a fight against the reigning champ, Sonny Liston. Liston is the overwhelming favorite, but Clay refuses to see himself as an underdog. In interviews with reporters, he talks incessantly about how badly he's going to beat the reigning champ.

He gives Liston a name, the Bear, and then buys a blue denim jacket with the words Bear Huntin' emblazoned on the back. At one point, Clay even shows up outside Liston's home to taunt him.

And when the two fighters finally step into the ring on February 25, 1964, Clay shocks everyone by backing up all his boasts. He takes Liston's best punches for six rounds without flinching and lands several haymakers of his own. And in between rounds, Clay hams it up for reporters while Liston broods in the corner.

And when the bell for the seventh round rings, Clay leaps off his stool as if he's fresh out of bed. Liston doesn't move, though, and after a few more seconds, the referee calls the fight. Clay is named the new heavyweight champion of the world. It's a culmination of everything he's worked so hard for. He leaps onto the ropes and starts shouting, I am the greatest. I'm the king of the world.

Later that night, Clay celebrates with his friends, including Malcolm X. And the next morning, he heads to the Miami Convention Center to meet with reporters and discuss the fight. As he enters the press room, Clay flashes them a wide smile. Then he sits at a podium and asks the reporters what they want to know. Hands fly into the air as reporters ask how Clay beat the seemingly invincible Liston, who he's planning to fight next, and whether he has any endorsement deals lined up.

Clay answers every question and cracks a few jokes. And for about a half an hour, the press conference goes smoothly. Then, as things start to wind down, Clay says he'll field one last question. And a young, balding man with pointy ears raises his hand. He notes that Malcolm X was sitting ringside last night and that Clay was seen leaving the arena with him. The reporter wants to know why.

Clay shrugs and explains that they're friends. After the fight, they went to a soda shop, split a bowl of vanilla ice cream. The reporter says he asked because Malcolm X belongs to the Nation of Islam, and he wants to know if Clay is also a card-carrying member. Clay frowns because though he's proud to be a member of the Nation of Islam, until now he's kept his religious views private. And he can tell from the way the reporter is asking the question, he means it as an accusation.

So Clay tries to brush the question off, noting that Nation members don't carry cards. But the reporter asks how he knows that, unless he's a member of the cult. Now Clay is annoyed. He says the Nation is not a cult, and then confirms that yes, he has joined the Nation of Islam and renounced Christianity.

The press room erupts with reporters bombarding Ali with follow-up questions. Ali points to one older sports writer he knows, thinking maybe he'll be more sympathetic. But instead, the writer points out that the nation has said it doesn't support American efforts to stop the spread of communism in Vietnam. He asks Clay for his thoughts on this.

Clay tries to explain that Islam means peace, and that's part of what first drew him to the faith. He also likes their attitudes about building up self-worth, about how black people should stick with their own. But the sportswriter just frowns and asks if Clay is talking about segregation. Clay answers yes. He supports segregation and opposes integration. All nation members do. Then Clay explains with a metaphor.

In the jungle, lions stick with lions, and tigers with tigers. It's just a basic rule of nature to be with your own kind. Then another reporter asks if Clay is serious about what he's saying. And this irritates Clay, because of course he's serious. A few minutes later, the press conference is over, and the reporters rush out to file their stories. As Clay watches them go, he knows they're likely to twist his words. Even if they don't, people will still likely get upset.

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On March 6th, 1964, just days after Cassius Clay announces that he's joined the Nation of Islam, leader Elijah Muhammad bestows a new Muslim name on Clay. He will now be known as Muhammad Ali.

For Ali, this is a great honor. But the backlash to his name change and embrace of Islam is swift. One sports writer accuses black Muslims of exploiting Ali and says his conversion has turned boxing into an instrument of mass hate. Another writer, citing the Nation of Islam's anti-white rhetoric, compares it to the Gestapo. Even Martin Luther King Jr. criticizes Ali, lamenting, when he joined the black Muslims, he became a champion of racial segregation.

And hardly anyone, including King, agrees to use Ali's new Muslim name. Still, Ali refuses to back down. He joins Nation of Islam leaders on a trip to Africa and continues to advocate for the nation in interviews. But they remain controversial. And soon, his membership in the Nation of Islam begins to hurt Ali's career.

When promoters try to arrange a rematch with Sonny Liston, dozens of cities turn them down. Public leaders cite fears that Nation of Islam members will descend in large groups and incite violence. And these fears only grow in February 1965, when Malcolm X is assassinated and three members of the nation are charged with a crime.

So three months later, when the rematch with Liston finally takes place in a hockey arena in Maine, hundreds of police officers sweep the arena for bombs and search spectators for weapons. Nation of Islam bodyguards in dark suits and bow ties accompany Ali into the arena, and the atmosphere is tense. But Ali wins easily, knocking out Liston in the first round and bragging afterwards that he had done it with a new move he called his "Karate Punch."

No one can deny Ali's boxing talent, but outside the ring, he remains a deeply divisive figure. Some fans and observers love his brash, boastful persona, while others find him insufferable. But Ali's decision to take inspiration from gorgeous George has proven to be a wise one. Love him or hate him, everyone is talking about Muhammad Ali.

By late 1965, the United States has been increasing its military presence in Vietnam for several years, supporting the pro-American South Vietnamese government in a war with communist North Vietnam. That year alone, the U.S. sends more than 150,000 troops to Southeast Asia, most of them drafted conscripts.

As an able-bodied young man, Ali was required to register for the draft when he turned 18. And he was called up to serve in early 1964. But Ali is dyslexic and so was unable to pass the Army's written aptitude test. After failing it twice, he was ruled ineligible for military service. But now, with the U.S. military's demand for even more troops, the Department of Defense decides to lower its standards.

They keep this plan quiet. But Miami sports reporter Bob Halloran soon catches wind of what's happening, and he recognizes that under these new standards, Ali could get drafted. Halloran has known Ali since he was first starting out in the pros and feels protective of him. He wants to warn the champ that the change in the draft rules is coming, but he also knows he has a potential scoop on his hands.

So on February 17th, 1966, Halloran pulls up outside of Ali's Miami home with a cameraman in tow, telling him to wait on the lawn with his camera ready. Then he knocks on Ali's door. Ali answers a moment later and welcomes Halloran in. The two men settle in on Ali's sofa, and Halloran explains why he's there.

He says he knows that Ali is a man of peace and has always been against America's involvement in the Vietnam War. But so far, his opposition has been mostly symbolic, since he was classified as ineligible for military service. But now, he says, it seems that that might change. Halloran leans forward and tells Ali that he's recently received a tip that the military plans to lower its minimum standards on the aptitude test starting today. And if that's true, Ali will be eligible for the draft.

Ali's face darkens. Halloran asks Ali what he plans to do if he's called up, but Ali says nothing. He's more quiet than Halloran has ever seen him. To give Ali a moment and check if the draft change has been officially announced, Halloran slips over to use the telephone. He dials up his newsroom and asks whether they've gotten word about the draft. His colleague says no, nothing yet.

But just before he hangs up, Halloran hears a familiar sound in the background. It's the wire machine that gets breaking news from the Associated Press. Whenever a story comes in, it beeps. Small stories get one beep. Slightly bigger stories, two beeps, all the way up to 11 beeps for major breaking news.

Halloran's breath tightens as he hears the machine keep beeping and beeping in the background. When it reaches eight, he's convinced that this is it. The government really is going to expand the draft, and Halloran will get his scoop. After he confirms the news to Ali, Halloran hustles the champ outside where his cameraman is standing by. As instructed, the cameraman rushes up and starts filming. Halloran asks Ali how he's feeling about his new draft status.

Ali is visibly upset. He points out that for two years, the army didn't want him. They said he was too stupid, but now suddenly they need him. To him, it feels like he's being singled out. Halloran asks again what Ali will do, and Ali says he's not sure. But one thing's for certain, he'll never join the United States military.

The day after his interview with Bob Halloran, another reporter calls Ali for a follow-up story. During that conversation, Ali says something that will change his life forever. Explaining his religious views on combat, Ali declares, I am a Muslim, and we don't go to war unless they are declared by Allah himself. Then he adds, I don't have no personal quarrel with those Viet Congs.

This statement outrages millions of people, especially veterans. The United States has been in a Cold War fighting communism for years. Protesting a war against the spread of communism is seen as a terrible betrayal of American ideals. One journalist calls Ali the Black Benedict Arnold.

Boxing officials also respond by canceling a big fight Ali has scheduled in Chicago. This costs him and his promoters hundreds of thousands of dollars, making Ali express regret that he ever opened his mouth about anything so political. But then, the more he thinks about it, the more Ali decides that he has to oppose the war, not only because his religion demands it, but because he feels it's wrong to send hundreds of thousands of men halfway around the world only to die.

So to ensure that he won't be forced to serve, Ali returns to Lulul to visit his hometown draft board. There, he formally applies for a deferment as a conscientious objector, a pacifist who opposes war on religious grounds. The draft board rejects Ali's request. To them, it seems preposterous that someone who punches people for a living could claim to be a pacifist.

Ali and his lawyers appeal the decision, and the State Draft Board turns to the Federal Department of Justice in Washington to ask for a recommendation on how to rule in Ali's case. The DOJ then asks the FBI to compile a report on Ali's beliefs. It's standard practice for conscientious objector cases, and as part of the process, FBI agents interview people close to Ali to determine if he's sincere in his beliefs.

But Ali's case is far from routine. The FBI already has a file on the heavyweight champ, which was opened just days after he announced his membership in the Nation of Islam. The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, considers the nation a threat to domestic security and has many of its leaders under surveillance.

So when the FBI gets Ali's draft review case, they make it a top priority and get to work interviewing friends, acquaintances, teachers, Nation of Islam associates, and family members, including Ali's parents. So when Ali's father, Cassius Clay Sr., spots a black Oldsmobile pull up outside his house in the spring of 1966, he has an idea of what's coming.

He watches as two white men wearing dark suits and sunglasses exit the car and approach the modest brick home that Ali bought for his parents. Clay's wife, Odessa, joins him at the window and asks in a whisper if it's the FBI. Clay nods, and then the two of them hear a knock on the door. Clay takes a deep breath and walks over to answer it. The agents smile and hold out their badges.

Clay welcomes them inside and shows them into the living room, where Odessa introduces herself and offers them seats and two armchairs. The Clays then sit down opposite the agents on a brown sofa beneath a wall decorated with pictures of their son. The first agent pulls out a notebook and pencil from his suit coat, which makes Clay tense again. But the agent chuckles and says it's nothing to worry about. It's not an interrogation. They're just gathering some facts about their son's conscientious objector claim.

The agents begin by asking questions about Ali's upbringing and beliefs. And soon the conversation shifts to the Nation of Islam. The second agent turns to Clay Sr.

What do you know about your son's religion? Well, I don't especially like it. They're not Christian. We raised our son Baptist, so it's disappointing that he went off and joined another religion. Do you know much about their beliefs? They are considered quite radical. I don't agree with their stance on segregation, if that's what you mean. And what about their leader, Elijah Muhammad?

It seems he and your son have become quite close. That man is manipulating my son. What makes you say that? There's no other way to explain his behavior. Like changing his name? The name Cassius Clay is part of our family, of our heritage. Now my son meets some punks in Miami and throws it all away as a so-called slave name. I'm sorry to hear that, Mr. Clay. Do you see your son much nowadays?

Not often. His last visit to Louisville, he shows up here in a cab and tells the driver to keep the meter running. He stayed 25 minutes and left. Odessa cooked a meal he didn't even eat. It was insulting. Why did he leave so quickly? I don't know, but I've lost my son to that so-called religion. It's like he's a different person now. Your son says he's a conscientious objector, that he opposes all war. Do you think he's sincere in that...

Clay looks at his wife. It takes a long minute to answer. Finally, he exhales and nods. "I do believe so. I disagree with my son about a lot nowadays. But he's told us several times that his new religion cannot abide killing anyone or serving in any army. He truly believes that. You're sure of that?" "Absolutely."

The agents jot this information down, and Clay lets himself relax. After half an hour, the interview is over, and as the agents stand to leave, they thank the Clays for their time and say they can show themselves out. Clay watches them get back in their car and drive away through the curtains. In spite of everything, Clay still loves his son.

And he's glad he was able to stick up for Cassius Jr. and express his honest opinions about his son's faith, including his genuine opposition to the war. But he does wish the boy had listened to his warnings about being a black man in America. You can't cause too much trouble. You can't be outspoken. You can't make yourself a target. And he worries that no matter what anyone tells the FBI about Muhammad Ali, they would love nothing better than to take him down.

In the first few months of 1966, FBI agents interview 35 different people about Muhammad Ali, producing hundreds of pages of transcripts. It's by far the most detailed report of any draft deferral applicant at the time.

The FBI's report will go to a judge, who will evaluate all the evidence and determine Ali's draft status. But before he does, he'll hold a hearing at which Ali can present his case. And to help him prepare for the hearing, the Nation of Islam pairs Ali with a lawyer named Hayden Covington.

Initially, Ali is put off by the recommendation. Covington is a wealthy white Southerner, seemingly the kind of person the nation warns its members against. But the nation encourages Ali to meet with him anyway. They say that Covington has an impressive track record of getting Jehovah's Witnesses out of military service. And since World War II, Covington has argued 44 such cases before the Supreme Court and won 37 of them.

So in the early summer of 1966, Ali arrives at Covington's office in downtown Houston for their first official consultation. As Ali enters, Covington jumps up from behind his large, polished wood desk to greet him. Covington is in his mid-50s, with wire-rimmed glasses and swept-back, graying hair. He shakes Ali's hand warmly, calling him champ. It makes Ali relax a bit. But as they sit, Covington pours himself a scotch, and Ali's guard goes back up.

Covington takes a sip of his drink, sets the glass down, takes a moment to savor it, then looks up at Ali. I've been thinking about your case, and I think we need to try a different strategy with the draft board. I'm not sure that claiming you're a conscientious objector is the best option.

Why not? Because conscientious objectors still have to serve in the military sometimes. Not on the front lines, but as file clerks or cooks. It's not a blanket exemption from military service. I didn't know that. Most people don't. But there's a better option for you. The 4D exemption for preachers and ministers. Ministers? That's right. According to the law, ministers are exempt from all military service, even non-combatant roles.

But I'm not a minister. I think I can make the case that you are. I've pioneered a legal strategy for the Jehovah's Witnesses. As part of their faith, all Witnesses have to knock on doors and spread the word about their religion. That's ministerial work. Hence, they're all ministers. On that basis, the Supreme Court has granted them exemption.

I don't knock on people's doors either. But you do preach. You're constantly talking about your faith on television. You also speak at Nation of Islam mosques around the country, right? That draws people in.

That's true, I do preach at mosques, but are you sure the judge will buy this? Well, I can't be 100% certain, but I am confident. The Supreme Court rulings are clear, and far more potential draftees get out of military service as ministers than as conscientious objectors. Well, I suppose it's worth a shot. Don't worry, champ. We're gonna win this.

As Ali stands to shake Covington's hand, he's impressed with the lawyer's strategy and confidence. On one hand, it sounds like a gamble. He's never considered himself a minister. But it is true that he actually does spend more time visiting mosques and talking about his faith than he does boxing. It seems like they could make a compelling case, especially if it's one that Covington has made successfully before. After their first meeting, Hayden Covington begins securing statements about Muhammad Ali's work as a minister.

Elijah Muhammad himself writes a letter. Covington also convinces Ali trainer Angelo Dundee to declare that Ali's primary occupation is preaching and that he boxes only to make money to support that calling. And just to cover his bases, Covington also plans to argue that Ali is also a conscientious objector. The hearing is scheduled for August 23rd, 1966. But as the date approaches, Ali's initial optimism gives way to nerves.

He knows that the judge has the right to question him during the hearing, and he's prepared to argue his case, but his mouth has gotten him in trouble in the past. And if things don't go well, it could upend his entire future. So on the day of the hearing, Ali waits nervously in a hot, stuffy hallway. But when the judge summons him inside, he straightens his back, lifts his chin, and walks in as confidently as he can.

In his hands, he carries two books, the Quran and Elijah Muhammad's Message to the Black Men in America. Bringing these books was his lawyer Covington's idea, to show Ali's sincerity to the judge, a white man in his late 60s named Lawrence Grauman, sitting at a bench in the front of the room. Ali sets the books down on the appellant's table, within eyeshot of Grauman. But rather than look impressed, the judge's face creases into a scowl. Ali feels a twinge of worry. Maybe this stunt is going to backfire.

Grauman calls a hearing to order. He advises Ali that this is not a trial, merely an opportunity to gather facts. Then he asks Covington to begin presenting the case. Over the next two hours, Covington calls four witnesses. These include Ali's parents, Sam Saxton, the man who first converted Ali to the Nation of Islam, and Clarence Eskridge, a tax attorney and one of Ali's confidants who has done work for Elijah Muhammad and Martin Luther King Jr.,

Eskridge testifies that Ali is so committed to his faith that he's turned down lucrative product endorsements and film appearances that would have conflicted with his beliefs. Prompted by Covington, he also talks about Ali's work as a Nation of Islam minister. And at this, Judge Grauman looks surprised, asking Eskridge to repeat himself. He even asks Eskridge to spell the word minister to make absolutely sure he's hearing it right.

As the judge grills Eskridge, Ali slouches in his seat. It seems like their strategy of going for the minister exemption is off to a bad start. So Ali grows even more nervous when after all the character witnesses, it's his turn to speak. He takes a deep breath to try to relax and rises and walks to the witness stand.

The judge's expression remains unreadable as Ali explains how he first heard about the Nation of Islam and what attracted him to the religion. He says he spends around six hours a day preaching in some capacity, calling people or talking at schools and mosques. Ali concedes that he needs to put his ministerial work aside sometimes to earn a living, but he says the publicity from boxing serves the greater good of Allah and the Nation of Islam.

Hearing this, Grauman makes a note on a legal pad. Then he asks Ali how he can declare himself a pacifist, given that he knocks out people for a living. Ali leans forward and points out that boxing and war are different things. Boxers wear gloves to inflict less damage. Meanwhile, soldiers aim to kill. Boxers may bloody each other sometimes, but what they're doing is sport, not murder.

Grauman nods thoughtfully and writes another note on his pad. Ali senses he might be making progress. But then Grauman says he wants to ask about Ali's previous contact with the draft board, pointing out that Ali took the army aptitude test twice, but in neither case did he declare himself a conscientious objector. So suddenly claiming that status now, when he's eligible to be drafted, looks suspicious. Ali fidgets in his chair and admits the answer is embarrassing.

He took the aptitude test a few weeks before his first Sonny Liston fight. His promoters had hundreds of thousands of dollars at stake, and so if he mentioned his new religion, word would have leaked out. He knows how controversial the Nation of Islam is, and a storm of bad publicity would have followed. Sponsors might have pulled out, and everyone would have lost money. So however cowardly it seems now, he decided then to keep quiet.

But then he holds up his hand and swears to Graman, with Allah as his witness, that if he had not failed those tests, he would have declared his opposition to war.

As Ali finishes, Grauman looks the young boxer up and down. But his face remains blank. And then, after three and a half hours, he ends the hearing. He wishes Ali luck, and then gathers his notes and leaves. Ali has been imagining that the end of the hearing would be a relief, but it's not. He knows he scored some good points, but Grauman still seemed dubious. And now there's nothing more Ali can do to prove his case. His fate now rests in the judge's hands. ♪

From Wondery, this is episode one of Muhammad Ali vs. the Draft from American Scandal. In our next episode, Ali makes a dramatic stand at an army induction center, and a group of black athletes try to persuade Ali to abandon his draft protest and save his career.

If you're enjoying American Scandal, you can unlock exclusive seasons on Wondery Plus. Binge new seasons first and listen completely ad-free when you join Wondery Plus in the Wondery app, Apple Podcasts, or Spotify. And before you go, tell us about yourself by filling out a survey at wondery.com slash survey.

If you'd like to learn more about Ali's fight against the draft, we recommend the books Sting Like a Bee by Lee Montville and Ali, A Life by Jonathan Ige. This episode contains reenactments and dramatized details. And while in most cases we can't know exactly what was said, all our dramatizations are based on historical research.

American Scandal is hosted, edited, and executive produced by me, Lindsey Graham, for Airship. Audio editing by Christian Paraga. Sound design by Gabriel Gould. Music by Lindsey Graham. Voice acting by Ace Anderson. This episode is written by Sam Kuhn. Edited by Emma Cortland. Fact-checking by Alyssa Jung-Perry. Produced by John Reed. Managing producer, Joe Florentino. Senior producers, Andy Beckerman and Andy Herman. Development by Stephanie Jentz.

Executive producers are Jenny Lauer Beckman, Marshall Louis, and Aaron O'Flaherty for Wondery.