Constantinople
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It is May 29th, 1453, and the sun is shining brightly on a scene of utter destruction in Constantinople, in what is now Turkey. The stench of smoke is still strong in the air. Astride his white horse, Sultan Mehmed II, leader of the Ottoman Turks, is making his official entrance to claim the city he has conquered.

passing between the two massive square towers, flanking the arched stone passageway of the Gate of Carisius. The young Mehmed sits tall in the saddle. His armor catches the sunlight, and his turban is wrapped tightly over his taj, the brimless hat that denotes his status. Behind him, his army follow, some on horseback, others on foot. The mood among the men is sober but triumphant.

Many bear the wounds of the 53-day siege. Smeared with mud and blood, some of the horses limp, but not Mehmed's own, which moves with the proud bearing of his rider. The ground beneath the horse's hooves is stained with blood, and at intervals he and his men pass corpses lying strewn around. But Mehmed's shrewd face is impassive, his gaze fixed on one feature of this great city which has survived the devastation.

In the distance, an enormous golden dome towers above the wreckage. It is the great cathedral Hagia Sophia, a symbol of Byzantine power and glory, the biggest building in all of Europe. As the victors approach, a cluster of survivors hurriedly drop to their knees in fearful deference, their gaze avoiding Mehmed's own. Even Constantinople's famous markets are quiet. Mehmed's cavalcade interrupts a cluster of people tending to the injured,

They cower as the army passes by, too afraid to speak. Just the occasional cry of pain pierces the eerie silence that hangs over the city. A small boy eyes the new arrivals with curiosity, his parents nowhere to be seen, lost perhaps in the chaos of the siege. He runs ahead of Mehmed, guessing his destination. Eventually Mehmed slows his horse to a halt and dismounts.

In front of the great entrance of the enormous church, an injured priest lies prostrate. The soldiers remove him gently in a small act of mercy before opening the heavy doors of the church. Savoring the moment, Mehmed steps inside the cavernous interior, looking up in wonder at the majestic dome rising above him. Light streams through its many windows. The magnitude of it is breathtaking.

Though Mehmed intends to transform the famous structure into a mosque, for now he just stands gazing at it, taking it all in. It is said the one who takes Constantinople will be truly blessed. And he has done that at just 21. He has conquered this queen of cities, a center of Christianity for more than a millennium. But he doesn't want to destroy Constantinople. Instead, he will build her back up so she's greater than she's ever been before.

Straddling two continents, the city of Constantinople was once known to the world as Byzantium and will, many years later, become Istanbul. From humble beginnings as a modest Greek colony, through its later grandeur as part of the Roman and Ottoman empires, the city has witnessed centuries of transformation. A melting pot of cultures and religions, Constantinople was a bridge between the East and West, where ideas, trade, and people converged.

At its heart stood the Hagia Sophia, once a Byzantine cathedral, in today's Istanbul a mosque, and always a symbol of the city's ability to survive and adapt. Surrounded by water and protected by massive defensive walls, it was almost invulnerable to attacks from both land and sea. How then did Mehmed II succeed where so many others had failed? What did the fall of the city in 1453 mean for the next stage of its history?

And what other highs, lows, and ruthless ambition did it witness for more than a millennium? I'm John Hopkins from the Noiser Network. This is a short history of Constantinople. It's 293 AD, and the great Roman Empire, encompassing territories in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East, is facing a period of unprecedented transformation. The unstable succession of its emperors and the difficulties of ruling over such a vast area needs a solution.

The Emperor Diocletian establishes what is known as the Tetrarchy, or Rule of Four. Leadership will now comprise two head emperors and two junior rulers. But soon a series of civil wars breaks out among the offspring of the Tetrarchs, now emperors themselves. By 312 AD, Constantine controls Gaul and England, while his brother-in-law, Maxentius, holds sway in Italy and North Africa.

and now they prepare to go head to head in a battle for power constantine the illegitimate son of a lowly innkeeper's daughter and one of the original tetrarchs emperor constantius has proved himself to be a bold soldier and a wily operator but according to an ecclesiastical historian as he prepares to fight outside of rome is dazzled by the sight of a cross lighting up the sky

The vision, it is said, is accompanied with an inscription in Latin that means "In this sign you will conquer." Moved by what he believes is a revelation, Constantine marks this symbol of Christianity, then only 300 years old, on his soldiers' shields. When he triumphs over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge just north of Rome, he attributes the victory to the Christian god.

As the emperor in the West, the converted Constantine meets with the Eastern Emperor Licinius the following year. Together, they issue the Edict of Milan, an order that grants freedom of worship to the previously persecuted Christians. But before long, the relationship between Constantine and Licinius also deteriorates.

They quarrel over territory. But things come to a head when, despite their former edict, Licinius begins to persecute Christians, banning them from court and closing churches. Their series of conflicts culminates in a great battle on the eastern shore of the Bosphorus Strait, the narrow, natural waterway that separates Europe and Asia. It happens to stand directly opposite the Greek city of Byzantium.

Constantine emerges victorious as the sole ruler, reuniting the whole empire. Shortly after the battle, he says that God speaks to him with an instruction to found a new city at Byzantium. Brian Ward Perkins is Emeritus Professor of Late Antique History at the University of Oxford and the author of The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization.

Constantinople was not founded on a barren, new, greenfield site. It's founded on the site of an ancient Greek city called Byzantium, which, by the way, gives us the name that we tend to call the people who ruled it, the Byzantines. It comes from that. This is a city that was founded in the 7th century BC. Not a hugely important town, on the other hand.

The advice Constantine receives in his vision is sound. The city of Byzantium is blessed in its location.

Constantinople is located on a peninsula sticking out into the Bosphorus, the Bosphorus being the sea route that links the Black Sea with the Aegean and the Mediterranean. And this is absolutely key to the importance of the city because it has excellent sea connections, both to the Black Sea and also to the wider Mediterranean. And crucially, it's on the land route that links Europe with Bosphorus.

Asia. Furthermore, being on a peninsula, it was readily defensible, so its location is extremely important to its future history. Constantine enthusiastically embarks on a building program at Byzantium, which is renamed Constantinople in 330 AD. He founds a new palace and extends the city's beloved Hippodrome, a stadium for chariot racing.

When Constantine re-found Byzantium as Constantinople, Constantinopolis,

It's not just the rebuilding of a city, it's given very special status because he gives it a Senate and there was only one other Senate, the Senate in Rome. Admittedly, the Senators initially are of lower status than those in Rome, but it's already set up as something more important than just a new city where the Emperor has decided to lavish his patronage.

In all, Constantine triples the size of the city, offering full citizenship and free bread to encourage men of rank to move there with their families. Christians are warmly welcomed in Constantinople and favored in imperial service, while bishops are rewarded with special privileges. They oversee a gradual top-down conversion to Christianity for the population of the city. But change is slow. At first, many of the inhabitants remain pagan.

Just before the end of the 4th century, long after the death of Constantine, Theodosius I divides the Roman territory between his two sons. Constantinople is the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, while its western counterpart is based in Ravenna, northeastern Italy, which is less vulnerable to attacks than Rome. The Roman Empire is now two distinct kingdoms. But what does that mean for the identity of the residents of those in the Eastern capital?

Geoffrey Gretricks is a professor of Classics at the University of Ottawa. All inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire right through till 1453 saw themselves as Romans right to the bitter end. And it's worth remembering that right through to the 6th century, a lot of those people would have spoken Latin. Some of the emperors spoke Latin, most of the soldiers spoke Latin, and a decent chunk of the population.

And even in later centuries, elements of that vocabulary are still to be found, sort of peppering the Greek language. So the Roman identity is really important. In 410, the Visigoths, a Germanic people under the leadership of Alaric I, besiege and sack Rome. It is the first time in almost 800 years that the eternal city has been taken by a foreign enemy. And the event shocks the world.

Alarmed by the threat of similar attacks on Constantinople, Emperor Theodosius II orders the construction of what will become known as the Theodosian Walls, an elaborate system of fortifications that surround the landward side of the city on the west.

It's the most impressive fortification built in antiquity. It's a great triple wall with three walls, each higher than each other, with a moat filled with water in front of it. It also expands the size of the city and it makes it into an impregnable place. For half a century, the Western Roman Empire limps on.

However, it faces continued attacks by various so-called barbarian tribes, including the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, the Vandals, and the Franks. With Roman control critically weakened, the Western Roman Empire finally falls in 476 AD, when the Germanic chieftain Odoacer declares himself King of Italy. It is an event that marks the end of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe.

But though the Roman Empire has collapsed in the West, it flourishes in the East. Its capital, Constantine's beloved city, will continue to thrive for nearly a thousand years. It is April 1, 527, and a somber celebration is taking place in Constantinople. The emperor, Justin I, is dying. Once a lowly pig farmer, he rose via the military to the highest position in the land. But now, on his way out, he has named his successor,

his nephew Justinian, renowned as a bright, ambitious soldier. In a procession to celebrate the new ruler, Justinian makes his way through Constantinople's Golden Gate. He then heads to the principal artery of the city, which is flanked by colonnaded walkways, lined with shops, and overlooked by imperious bronze statues. Clever and determined, Justinian is deeply religious with a strong sense of duty.

His wife is an equally intelligent and ambitious former actress and showgirl called Theodora. The pair met at the city's bustling Hippodrome, where Theodora performed acrobatic tricks and erotic dances. Though the regulations at the time prevented individuals of senatorial status from marrying actresses, Justinian fell so deeply in love that he requested that his uncle change the law.

The Empress Theodora is a fascinating character. She is written about in extremely rude terms by contemporaries, but probably rightly that is seen as sort of male misogynism. She's certainly unusual because her background was as an actress, and being an actress was seen as an immoral form of behaviour. For a potential emperor to marry an actress was decidedly rare.

Theodora, though, is a woman of many talents, and soon Justinian makes her one of his chief advisors. In the year after his accession, the emperor begins to develop a new legal code. The collective body of work becomes known as the Code of Justinian, which influences laws to this day. It is at this point that Greek begins to eclipse Latin in the city.

The sixth century is the critical moment in which the Latin is gradually superseded by the Greek. And we can see that if we look at the laws of Justinian and the law codes, so that the first two parts he produces, the Codex Justinianus and the Digest, those are both

almost all in Latin. There's a few Greek laws in that. But when he comes to update these in his novels, that is new laws, nearly all of those are then in Greek. And we can see the steady progress made by the Greek language. So that obviously becomes the standard language from the 7th century onwards, Latin recede. Theodora's influence can be seen in the new laws that protect women.

These include better treatment of sex workers, as well as harsher punishments for abusers. She even founds a commune for ex-prostitutes in a converted palace. Next, her husband reforms the tax system, primarily to take it out of the hands of corrupt local officials. But an arduous conflict with the Persians in the East means that taxes are raised to fund military campaigns.

and the imperial couple have enemies among the city's aristocratic families, who resent their rulers' humble roots. In January 532, riots erupt across the city. The trouble begins at the Hippodrome, Constantinople's sporting and social hub, primarily known for its chariot races. Often, the fierce rivalry between the two chariot racing teams, the Blues and the Greens, spills over into violence.

On this occasion, however, the opposing teams join forces, protesting against Justinian's tax hikes, military campaigns, and legal reforms. The teams call for "Nika" or victory against the Emperor instead of each other, and the rebellions become known as the "Nika Riots." It is possible that disgruntled senators are responsible for fanning the flames of discontent.

Either way, the rioters surround the Praetorium or courthouse and set it alight. Next, the Hippodrome is also set on fire, and the Hippodrome is next door to the Emperor's palace. By the time the flames reach the Hagia Sophia, the Emperor has to call in the Special Forces, a unit of Goths, the fierce Germanic people who serve in various capacities in the Roman military.

The following night, weeding out troublemakers, he expels two of the city's aristocrats, Hippasius and Pompey, from the palace. But Hippasius is the nephew of a former emperor. Before long, he is declared the rightful heir to the throne by the Greens and the Blues. In the now somewhat charred Hippodrome, he is bedecked with a golden necklace in the imperial box.

But the rioters still have the problem of Justinian holed up in his palace while the fires rage. It is January 532, and the atmosphere in the great palace of Constantinople is tense. The acrid scent of smoke hangs heavy in the air, and the sound of violence beyond the palace walls reverberates through its marble corridors. Now the fire has reached the complex itself.

Dressed in flowing purple silk, the Empress Theodora can hear the shouts outside and the crackle of flames as she hurries to her husband's quarters. After days of rioting and violence, those in the palace now fear for their lives. Theodora can hear the frightened whispers of the servants behind her. As she reaches her husband's quarters, the high-ceilinged marble room is a hive of activity. Courtiers and servants are packing up the Emperor's belongings.

On the mosaic floor, several are kneeling to roll up an intricate tapestry that depicts scenes of her husband's former conquests. Others are throwing silk robes into trunks in a terrified rush. When the Empress enters, they briefly bow before returning to their tasks. She demands to know what is going on, but they keep their eyes lowered, too scared to answer her questions. So she makes her way to her husband. Justinian is standing by a window overlooking the city below them.

The streets are aflame, with people tearing around in panic and rage. Even now, a fresh group of angry rioters is approaching the palace. He turns to her, his face racked with worry. Theodora tells the servants they need a moment of privacy, and they scuttle away. The Emperor explains that he has been advised to flee. There are ships being prepared in the harbor. Escape will be straightforward through a sea gate in the palace that opens directly onto the Sea of Mamara.

Theodora can see that her husband, once a brave soldier, is frightened. But there is perhaps just a flicker of doubt in his eyes. She can work with that. She takes a breath. To flee, she argues, would be a mistake. They are emperor and empress. It would be intolerable for them to become fugitives. Gesturing to the royal purple she wears, she reminds him of how far he has come.

And what of his soldiers, under the command of his right-hand man, the general Belisarius? With such forces at their disposal and backup troops available, they could take back control of the city. The empress keeps her unwavering gaze on her husband's face as he paces the chamber, thinking over her arguments. His thoughts are interrupted by a knock at the door. A boy enters with a message. The ships are ready for them. Justinian glances at his wife, then back to the messenger. He shakes his head.

They are not leaving. Theodora smiles, allowing herself a brief moment of triumph. She, a woman who started life as a circus performer, has saved the fate of an empire. But she can't glory in her victory for too long. There is work to do. Theodora prevented him from fleeing the city. She basically tells him, "Don't be such a wimp. Emperors either live in their city or die in their city. They do not flee their city."

What follows is nothing less than a bloodbath. Justinian's troops, with the help of Goth and Hunnic backup, surround the smoldering Hippodrome. There, the largely unarmed protesters are no match for the professional soldiers. Between 20 and 50 thousand are killed in a single day. The rebel aristocrats, Hypatius and Pompey, are thrown into the Sea of Mamara, with their hands and feet bound.

Now, with the rebellion quelled, the ruthless Emperor and his unstoppable wife decide to build the city anew on the scorched earth. Within forty days, they embark on an ambitious architectural program rebuilding the palace and the Hippodrome. A massive column is erected, and at its top is a statue of Justinian himself, dressed as the Greek hero Achilles astride a horse.

It is a clear visual reminder of who is the boss of this new Rome. But the most illustrious legacy of Justinian's reign is the Hagia Sophia. With its predecessor damaged by fire, Justinian builds a new version of that great symbol of the city, dedicated to Sophia, or "holy wisdom," which survives to this day. The interior is a dazzling display of vividly colored marble and metallic glitter.

The central basilica culminates in a vast dome with a diameter of more than 31 meters and a height of over 55. Often compared with the dome of heaven itself, it stands as a stunning legacy of his rule, despite the unrest that preceded it.

If you think of a parallel, by the way, it does make you think of Nero, of course, who could profit from the burning town of the city. But Justinian was rather more successful than Nero. He lasted a long time after this. So did his building, in particular, the Hagia Sophia. Some suggest that it's suspiciously quick, that he perhaps already had plans in a drawer somewhere and wasn't too displeased to have the opportunity to do so.

The arts flourish during Justinian's reign over the realm referred to variously as the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. Silk production is introduced to Constantinople from China. Other workshops produce exquisite ivory carvings, enamel metalwork, and painted icons.

In the bustling markets of the city, a rich array of goods from across the globe is on display. Gleaming gold, luxurious silks, aromatic spices, sparkling gems from India, Russian fur, delicious honey, and fragrant wax. It is a polyglot city, where a huge number of languages is spoken, home not only to Romans and Greeks, but also to Jews, Arabs, Serbs, Persians, Huns, and Scandinavians.

The city's opulent court and sophisticated society, influenced by Eastern traditions and customs, contributes to a perception in the West that the Byzantines are somehow effete and exotic. The presence of eunuchs, a primarily Eastern custom, further accentuates this point for Constantinople's enemies. But Justinian is keen to prove himself and to revive the grandeur of ancient Rome.

He sets about the task of reclaiming territories lost to the barbarian invasions in the 5th century. Guiding his military endeavors is his right-hand man, Belisarius. Justinian's general retakes North Africa and Sicily and leads campaigns to reconquer portions of Italy. Top of the list is the recapture of the city of Rome, which he achieves in December 536. And a few years later, he seizes Ravenna, the final bastion of the barbarians in northern Italy.

he dispatches the Gothic king and royal treasures to Constantinople. The Byzantines also reclaim parts of southern Spain and make peace with the Asian nomads known as the Avars and the Persians. But many of these military gains are only temporary, and Justinian's reign continues to be a roller coaster ride of highs and lows for the city.

In 542, a plague wipes out 20% of its inhabitants, and in 548, a loss close to home hits the Emperor hard when Theodora dies of cancer. Later, huge earthquakes shake the Theodosian walls. Despite his heartbreak, Justinian continues his campaign of empire building until his death after almost four decades in power.

He is remembered as one of Constantinople's most ambitious rulers, reigning over a golden age that is marked by both triumph and controversy. In AD 570, more than a thousand miles southeast of Constantinople, a son is born into a wealthy merchant's family in modern-day Saudi Arabia. When he is around 40, he is meditating in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca. It is said that he is visited by the angel Jibril or Gabriel.

who reveals to him the beginnings of what will later become the Quran. History will remember him as the Prophet Muhammad. And in 610, as Heraclius takes the throne in Constantinople, he begins to preach a new religion: Islam. The rise of this faith has a direct effect on the Byzantine Empire. The impregnable Christian city becomes known in the Islamic world as "a bone in the throat of Allah."

War is often now a holy conflict between competing religions. Byzantine armies march behind icons, depictions of revered Christian figures which are believed to offer divine protection in battle. And by the time Muhammad dies in his early 60s, he has united the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of Islam. After the death of Muhammad in 632,

The Arabs now, under a new faith, Islam, begin a process of conquest, which begins by defeating and conquering the mighty Persian Empire and then begins conquests in the Near East, in Palestine.

Syria. These are very successful and a key moment is when the emperor Heraclius attempts to stem this conquest of a major campaign and is defeated in a great battle called the Battle of Yarmouk in 636. The Battle of Yarmouk takes place a long way from the city on the border of modern-day Syria and Jordan, but it has serious consequences for the Byzantine Empire with the loss of control over territories in today's Middle East.

Over the next few centuries, the city itself is frequently besieged. Yet the impenetrable Theodosian walls keep the city secure from land attacks. For now. Meanwhile, Constantinople has discovered another secret weapon. An incendiary substance known as Greek fire, made from crude oil, sulfur, pitch, and quicklime, belches undouseable flames of the Arab fleets.

In these years, the Byzantine Empire is a shadow of its former self. And in Constantinople, the population drops. There is conflict within the city's walls too, in the so-called Iconoclasm controversy during the 8th and 9th century, triggered by disagreement over the use of religious icons in worship. There is also growing estrangement from the West. On Christmas Day in 800, Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne Emperor of the Romans in the West.

But the Byzantines believe themselves to be the direct successors of the Roman Empire and take Charlemagne's coronation as an affront to their own imperial authority. Fissures emerge between the western branch of the Church in Rome and the eastern branch in Constantinople. There are disagreements on anything from clerical celibacy to the use of unleavened bread. Even the precise wording of the Nicene Creed, which summarizes the core beliefs of the religion, is disputed.

Religious discord is exacerbated by political tensions, particularly concerning the authority of Rome. The West asserts that its Pope has greater authority than the Patriarch, the figurehead of the Eastern Church. Constantinople disagrees. On July 16, 1054, things come to a head. On a hot summer's day, papal legates, clerics sent by the Pope as his personal representatives, ride through Constantinople.

Marching into the shaded cool of the Hagia Sophia, they slam down on the altar a papal bull of excommunication. This formal document exiles the patriarch from the church. In retaliation, Constantinople's patriarch excommunicates the papal legates. And so begins what becomes known as the Great Schism, in which the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church become distinct entities.

The division has profound implications for the religious and political landscape of medieval Europe and the Byzantine Empire for centuries to come. By the 11th century, Constantinople has been attacked by external forces more than 20 times, but its indomitable walls repel each assault. However, the ascendance of the Seljuk Turks in this era casts a shadow of uncertainty over the city's future.

Originally nomads from Central Asia, particularly modern-day Mongolia, Siberia, and Kazakhstan, the Turkic tribes are known for their horsemanship and military prowess. Among them, under the leadership of the chieftain Seljuk and his descendants, the Seljuk Turks are on the rise. In 1071, the Seljuks win a decisive victory against the Byzantine Empire. They gain control over much of Anatolia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey.

Within a few years they have captured Jerusalem, and after that they have Constantinople in their sights. In response, the Emperor Alexis sends his envoys to Pope Urban II in Rome, urgently seeking mercenary troops from the West. Despite the long-standing tensions between Western and Eastern Christians, Alexis' plea comes at a time when the relationship is improving.

Fast forward to November 1095, at an assembly for church reform in southern France known as the Council of Clermont. There, Pope Urban II issues a stirring call to arms. He implores Western Christians to march alongside their Byzantine brethren in a quest to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control.

The sermon heralds the dawn of a new era, a series of military campaigns sanctioned by the Catholic Church. The age of the Crusades has begun. But the Crusades do not work out well for Constantinople. Instead of mercenary troops, the crowd that turns up is a haphazard group of knights, soldiers, and common people from various Western European regions.

Cultural and religious differences between the Latin-speaking Crusaders and the Greek-speaking Byzantines contribute to conflict between the two groups. It is partially out of hostility toward the Eastern Orthodox Church that the Crusaders proceed to raid Byzantine lands on their way to Palestine. The First Crusade results in the capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders in 1099, but subsequent campaigns achieve mixed results.

In what is known as the Fourth Crusade, the Venetians provide crucial support for the expedition. But though the campaign is originally directed against Muslims in Egypt, it ends up on the Dalmatian coast. By the time we get up to the Fourth Crusade,

Should we say this was a rather inglorious venture. They were heading out to Egypt. But the trouble was they didn't have the money to fund the troops. The Venetians were not going to do this for nothing. They wanted something for their efforts.

And so it quickly got diverted into a general looting expedition, first to the port of Zadar, condemned by the Pope, and eventually to Constantinople because an ousted member of an imperial house, Alexius, who

whose father, Isaac II, had been thrown out and blinded. Well, he offered them funding if they helped him regain control. He does. They do get him back into power, but then he doesn't have the money to pay them either. Outside the city, Alexis' Venetian allies grow restless as they wait for payment. They begin to remember the old bad blood between the Christians of the East and West.

Eventually, in the harbor, the tension reaches breaking point, and the unpaid Venetians decide to take matters into their own hands. Mounting siege ladders to the masts of their ships, they sail them straight into Constantinople's sea walls. Gaining footholds on the structures themselves, the attackers enter the city, and all hopes of mercy between fellow Christians are brutally dashed.

What follows is an orgy of looting and destruction, with the city's treasures ransacked. Donkeys brought into the Hagia Sophia to carry off its silverware skid in the blood on the marble floor. In the city's most famous theft, the four bronze horses in Constantinople's Hippodrome are taken to St. Mark's Basilica in Venice. The Crusaders establish a Latin Empire in the city and the Byzantine Empire splinters.

And although the new, smaller states battle as allies against the invaders, they also fight among themselves for the Byzantine throne. But in 1261, a force under Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos reconquers Constantinople and destroys the Latin Empire of the Crusaders. The Byzantine Empire has not quite come to an end, but the writing is on the wall. Constantinople is diminished but unbowed, but soon the net begins to close in for good.

It begins with a dream. One night, towards the end of the 13th century, a man called Osman Gazi, a Turkish leader, goes to sleep. He dreams that a tree grows from his navel and spreads across the world. When the wind stirs its sword-shaped leaves, they point towards Constantinople. Osman and his warriors take advantage of the declining dynasty of the Seljuk Turks, which has been severely weakened by Mongol invasions.

In a name that derives from their founder, Osman, they become known as the Ottomans. Their janissaries, or elite infantry units, comprise conscripted Christian boys who have been converted to Islam and trained as formidable soldiers. The Ottoman army becomes a daunting military force. But though they take various lands surrounding Constantinople, for now they leave it alone.

The Ottomans proceed into the Balkans. They take Sofia in the late 14th century. They beat the Serbs as well. And so what you're left with is this weird island, this enclave. They've just sort of gone round it, waiting to swallow it at some later point. But it becomes more and more or less inevitable.

In the mid-15th century, a new Ottoman leader, Mehmed II, becomes obsessed with the idea of conquering Constantinople. He knows it has been attempted many times before, but he vows his siege will be different. I'd say there are two things to mention just in the immediate run-up to the siege.

One is the construction of this fort at Rumeli Hisar, which is just up the Bosphorus towards the Black Sea, the narrowest point. It's a massive, impressive fortress you can still see today. Stops anything coming back. No more supplies are going to come to Constantinople from there. And they could see that. And the people in the city could just see that going on. Nothing they could do about it.

And of course, the other thing is the Hungarian who develops this cannon and he offers it to the Byzantines. They haven't got money to pay for it. They would dearly like it. So of course, it goes to the Turks who make very good use of it to shatter the walls. So really, the noose is tightening and it's only a matter of when rather than if by that point.

The cannon acquired by the Ottoman forces is so enormous it requires 200 individuals to man it. For their part, the Byzantines use a chain stretched across the estuary to the north of Constantinople as a sea defense to stop enemy ships approaching. But compared to the Ottoman might, it's a mere decoration. The Turks had the manpower to drag their ships.

overland to the other side. So who cares about the chain? Then they've got their fleet there. So the city is totally encircled now. And really, the task is beyond the defenders. And the final emperor, Constantine XI,

He dies, he goes into the battle, his body is never found, all sorts of legends surround him. Three days of sacking the city until Mehmed the Conqueror puts an end to this. But it's an event that does nonetheless, even though it's foreseeable, send shockwaves to the West. Constantinople becomes the capital of the Ottoman Empire, serving as a center of Islamic culture and commerce for centuries.

Under Ottoman rule, the city experiences a period of growth and prosperity, with the construction of iconic landmarks.

Then over the following centuries, tremendous expansion of the population, investment in infrastructure, mosques put up. Mehmed builds this Topkapi Palace, which is still there today, on the Acropolis. And the mosque, the Fatih Jami, the mosque of the conqueror. And then there's various other buildings put up by subsequent sultans, very spectacular mosques.

By the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire has weakened, and European powers vie for control over its territories. In the First World War, the Ottomans side with the Central Powers, which include Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria. The Ottomans triumph in the Battle of Gallipoli, a campaign that takes place in today's northwest Turkey. But though they might have won the battle, the war itself becomes insurmountable.

By 1918, the Ottomans face significant losses on multiple fronts and contact Britain to cease hostilities. An armistice is signed aboard the British warship HMS Agamemnon. In November 1918, the ship and its fleet sails into Constantinople to enforce the terms of the armistice and prevent any resurgence of military resistance. Some greet the new arrivals with an almost celebratory excitement.

Others are horrified at the prospect of occupation. It is November 13th, 1918. A steam train hisses and slows to a halt at Haida Passa station on the eastern shore of the Bosphorus. Looking out of the window from his seat, Mustafa Kemal, the Ottoman officer who earned his stripes at Gallipoli, sighs deeply. He has been demobilized and recalled back to Constantinople by the war ministry. His return to the city is tinged with sorrow and frustration.

It'll be hard to witness its occupation by its former enemies. But he is a shrewd operator with an eye on government itself and is keen to make the best of whatever hand he is dealt. He straightens the medals on his chest and climbs down onto the bustling platform where his doctor awaits him. Together, they descend the grand steps of the turreted station building which commands a sweeping view of the Bosphorus Strait.

The water is particularly busy today with the imposing presence of Allied warships. Their grey hulks, a stark reminder of the Ottoman Empire's lost cause in the war. From this viewpoint, Kamal can see the grand facade of the Dolmabahce Palace, stretching across the opposite shore. From ships drawing up alongside, Allied soldiers, mainly British in their khaki uniforms, are disembarking. Even from this distance there seems to be a swagger to their walk. They move as if they own the city.

He turns away from the scene and makes his way to the waterfront, then boards a ferry over the Bosphorus into the city. From the port he hails a horse-drawn carriage to take him to his hotel, while biplanes circle overhead. As the bearded porters, wearing turbans and wide sashes, sit hunched over his luggage, Kamal watches the city go about its usual business. Veiled women make their way to and from the markets. Greek monks and priests pace through the streets in flowing robes.

When the carriage stops for a moment, a clutch of barefoot children dart up to him, stretching their arms out for food or money. The war has left many starving. At last he reaches his accommodation: the opulent Pera Palace Hotel. The lobby is filled with Allied soldiers and officers. Their dull, khaki uniforms contrast with the hotel's lavish decor: its glistening chandeliers, intricately carved wooden furniture, and pristine marble surfaces.

Finding a table in the corner of the lobby, Kamal is offered coffee by a waiter. He accepts, but notes the forced politeness with which the waiter serves the foreign soldiers, casting nervous glances wherever he goes. Now an old friend hurries over and sits with him. In hushed, anxious tones, he talks about soldiers everywhere in the city. What does Kamal make of it all? For now, the war hero keeps his cards close to his chest, but his mind is whirring.

Certainly, at the moment, he'll cooperate with the Allies, but long term his aims are clear and twofold: a position of power for himself and ultimately an independent nation. In May 1919, Kemal is sent by the Sultan to oversee troops in Anatolia. Though his official mission is to restore order, he begins organizing resistance against the Allied occupation and, crucially, the decisions of the Ottoman government.

In the ensuing Turkish War of Independence, Kemal leads his people to resist foreign domination and secure their nation's sovereignty. Within a few years, the Ottoman Sultanate is formally abolished and Kemal becomes the first president of the new Republic of Turkey. In recognition of his pivotal role in founding the modern Turkish state, the Grand National Assembly bestows upon him the surname Ataturk, which translates to "Father of the Turks."

The city of Ankara is declared as the country's new capital. But 200 miles to the west, Constantinople remains the country's largest city and economic hub. In 1930, the city officially becomes Istanbul, although it is a name that has been unofficially in use for centuries. Today, Istanbul is a vibrant metropolis. With 15 million residents, it is the most populous city in Europe and home to almost 20% of the population of Turkey.

It continues to attract millions of visitors each year, with its rich history, multifaceted culture, and glorious architecture. Landmarks such as the Hagia Sophia, now a mosque, and Tokapi Palace are reminders of its heritage, as a home to diverse religions and legendary riches. Even its name speaks volumes. The word Istanbul derives from the Greek phrase "Aistinpolin", meaning "to the city".

Always known simply as the city, by the Greeks, the Turkish, and by some outsiders as far away as China, its name is testament to its central role in world history. Next time on Short History Of, we'll bring you a short history of the Northwest Passage.

It's extraordinarily beautiful. It is the most lovely place on earth that I've ever been. The ice is not white. It is suffused with colors of every kind. And of course you have the Northern Lights as a regular visitor rather than once every hundred years or so. And just the beauty, the starkness of this vast land.

That's next time.