The Year 1700
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Over 300 years ago, humanity was in the early stages of what would be its greatest transformation in history. Around the world, there were new ideas that were just starting to take root. That isn't to say it was all great in the world, but seeds were planted that would bear fruit centuries later, socially, politically, economically, scientifically, and technologically.

Learn more about the world in the year 1700 and the changes that took place during the 17th century on the 1700th episode of Everything Everywhere Daily. This episode is sponsored by Quince. I don't think most people would consider me the most stylish guy. I don't really see the point in spending a ton of money to try to be fashionable. But with Quince, I can get high-end versatile pieces at prices that I can actually afford.

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It's been a hundred days since we examined the state of the world in the year 1600. In the hundred years since 1600, a lot of things have happened. The pace of change wasn't quite what it would be in the centuries to come, but it was arguably the fastest in history up until that point. It was a period that sat in the middle of what is known as the early modern period. So, let's start our tour of the world in the year 1700 in China.

In 1700, China under the Qing Dynasty was experiencing a period of stability and prosperity. The Kangxi Emperor, one of China's most capable rulers, was in the middle of a 61-year reign. Under his administration, China expanded its borders, stabilized its economy, and enjoyed a cultural renaissance.

Population was growing rapidly, and agricultural productivity was high. The economy was largely self-sufficient, with sophisticated internal trade networks and manufacturing capabilities, particularly in ceramic, silk, and tea production. China remained the world's largest economy, producing approximately 33% of global manufacturing output in 1700. However, the Qing maintained restrictions on foreign trade, limiting it primarily to the port of Canton.

Japan was in the middle of the Edo period under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate at this time. The country was deliberately isolated from the outside world through the Sakoku or closed country policy, which severely restricted foreign contact to limited trade with Dutch and Chinese through the port of Nagasaki. Japanese society was highly structured under the Tokugawa shogunate, with a rigid class system dividing samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants.

Despite being at the bottom of the social hierarchy, merchants were increasingly wealthy and influential. Urban culture was vibrant, especially in the city of Edo, the city that would later be named Tokyo, which had grown into one of the world's largest cities with a population approaching 1 million people. Theater, literature, and the visual arts flourished in this urban environment.

Over in India, the Mughal Empire in 1700 was still one of the world's wealthiest and most populous entities, but it was showing early signs of the challenges that would later lead to its decline. Emperor Aurangzeb, the last of the great Mughal rulers, was in the final years of his long reign. His extensive military campaigns had expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent, but had also strained imperial resources and alienated non-Muslim subjects.

Economically, India remained extraordinarily wealthy, producing approximately 25% of the world's manufacturing output. Textiles, particularly cotton and silk, were major exports, and Indian goods were highly prized throughout the world. The architectural and artistic achievements of the Mughals were at their peak, with magnificent buildings like the Taj Mahal, completed in 1643, showcasing the empire's cultural sophistication and wealth. Africa in 1700 presented a complex and diverse political landscape.

In West Africa, powerful states like the Kingdom of Dahomey, the Ashanti Empire, and the Oyo Empire dominated regional politics and trade, including increasing involvement in the Atlantic slave trade. In East Africa, the Swahili Coast maintained its centuries-long trading network across the Indian Ocean, connecting with Arab, Indian, and Southeast Asian merchants.

Ethiopia, under the Solomonic dynasty, maintained its distinctive Christian culture and independence, having successfully resisted attempts by the Ottoman Empire at conquest. The transatlantic slave trade was accelerating, with profound demographic and social consequences for African societies. European powers had established coastal forts and trading posts, but had not yet begun the colonial partition of the continent, which would come later. The most powerful and extensive empire in the old world had to be the Ottoman Empire.

In 1700, the Ottoman Empire remained one of the world's great powers, controlling vast territories across southeastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa. However, this period marked the beginning of challenges to Ottoman dominance. The empire had recently suffered a significant defeat in what was known in Europe as the Great Turkish War, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz. This treaty forced the Ottomans to cede substantial European territories to the Habsburg monarchy, Poland, and Venice.

It marked the Ottomans' first major territorial losses and a turning point in their status as a European power. Ottoman society maintained its distinctive multi-religious character, with the millet system providing some autonomy to different religious communities. Nonetheless, Islamic art, culture, and architecture continued to flourish in major cities like Constantinople, Damascus, and Cairo. The Pacific Islands and Australia in 1700 remained largely outside of European imperial systems.

Indigenous Australians continued their traditional ways of life across the continent, with hundreds of distinct cultural and linguistic groups. European contact was still minimal and sporadic, with the Dutch having made some coastal landings but no settlement attempts. Polynesian, Melanesian, and Micronesian societies throughout the Pacific maintained their diverse cultures, sophisticated navigation techniques, and trading networks.

European exploration of the Pacific was still limited at this time, although it would increase significantly throughout the next century. The Americas in 1700 were deeply transformed by European colonization, but still maintained significant indigenous presence. In North America, British, French, and Spanish colonies were established along the eastern seaboard and in the Mississippi Valley, but vast territories remained under indigenous control.

Although disease and conflict severely reduced the indigenous population, they continued to adapt and resist European encroachment. Spanish America, from Mexico through Central America and much of South America, was organized into the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru. A distinctive colonial society had developed, characterized by racial hierarchies and economic systems based on mining, plantation agriculture, and ranching.

In Brazil, Portuguese colonization was focused on sugar production using enslaved African labor. The Badarachis, or frontier explorers, were pushing into the interior, searching for mineral wealth and indigenous people to enslave. At this point, the vast majority of what is today the United States and Canada was still under the control of native people. European colonies were only found in the east, with some Spanish missions in the southwest.

France still occupied what it called New France along the St. Lawrence River, and England had multiple colonies to the south that were growing in terms of population and economic activity. The 17th century saw some significant changes in Europe. England saw a major civil war. The conflict ended with Charles I's execution in 1649, the abolition of the monarchy, and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell's rule.

After Cromwell's death, the monarchy was restored in 1660 under Charles II, marking the end of England's brief period as a republic. In 1688, England had the Glorious Revolution, which removed their last Catholic monarch and permanently replaced them with Protestants. Continental Europe saw an even worse conflict in the Thirty Years' War. I've covered the Thirty Years' War in a previous episode, but it was one of the most devastating wars in history in terms of the percentage of the population who died.

The war led to immense destruction, famine, and disease, particularly in German territories, leading to fatality rates as high as 50% in some areas. It ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which established the principles of state sovereignty and religious tolerance that are still largely followed today.

In France, Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, was at the height of his power, having transformed France into Europe's dominant military and cultural power from his palace at Versailles. The French court set cultural standards that other European courts sought to emulate. In the Spanish Empire, the Habsburg dynasty was declining. Charles II, the last Habsburg king, died in 1700, leading to a major European conflict over the Spanish throne.

Russia under Peter the Great was beginning to transform into a European power. He was modernizing Russia, expanding its military and moving towards European-style governance. He founded the city of St. Petersburg in 1703, marking Russia's shift towards Europe. I want to spend the rest of the episode talking about what was happening in Europe intellectually. Many innovations in science, mathematics and philosophy were being made in the 17th century.

and these innovations would later play a role in a host of events leading up to the present day. Consider some of the groundbreaking scientific advancements that were made during the 17th century. Galileo Galilei revolutionized observational astronomy with his improved telescope, discovering Jupiter's moons, the phases of Venus, and sunspots. His observations provided crucial evidence supporting the Copernican heliocentric model.

Johannes Kepler formulated his three laws of planetary motion, establishing that planets move in elliptical orbits rather than perfect circles, revolutionizing understanding of celestial mechanics. Isaac Newton published his masterpiece, Philosophia Naturalis Percipia Mathematica, unifying celestial and terrestrial physics with his laws of motion and universal gravitation. And he also established what would become the mathematical field of calculus.

Robert Boyle published The Skeptical Chemist in 1661, challenging Aristotelian four-element theory and laying groundwork for modern chemistry. His experimental work led to Boyle's Law, relating pressure and volume of gas. Robert Hooke published Micrographica in 1665, revealing the microscopic world. His detailed observations included the first description of cells, which he observed in cork.

Rene Descartes introduced the Cartesian coordinate system in La Geometry in 1637, bridging algebra and geometry and enabling the graphical representation of algebraic equations. Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat developed the foundations of probability theory through their correspondence about gambling problems. Their work would eventually transform statistics, economics, and decision theory. All of this was part of the formalization of science and the scientific process.

In 1620, Francis Bacon advocated for a new inductive method of scientific inquiry, emphasizing systematic observation and experimentation. The Royal Society of London was founded in 1660, institutionalizing the new experimental approach to natural philosophy and establishing scientific communication practices that are still used today. However, the advances weren't just in science and mathematics. The 17th century saw the start of the Enlightenment.

René Descartes revolutionized philosophy with his method of systematic doubt in his Meditations on First Philosophy in 1641, arriving at his famous conclusion, cogito ergo sum, or I think, therefore I am. John Locke articulated empiricist epistemology in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1689, arguing that knowledge comes from experience rather than innate ideas.

That same year, he published an essay concerning human understanding, which challenged the divine right of King's theory, arguing for natural rights and consensual government, providing the theoretical foundations for liberal democracy. And on top of all of these new ideas, the world was becoming more interconnected. Trade networks linked distant regions, with silver from the Americas flowing to Europe and then to Asia in exchange for spices, textiles, porcelain, and other luxury goods.

The Columbian exchange of plants, animals, and diseases continued to transform ecosystems and societies around the world. American crops like maize, potatoes, and tomatoes were being adopted in Africa, Europe, and Asia, contributing to population growth. While many of these ideas and trends were developing, they hadn't yet become widespread.

The basis of the scientific revolution had been established, but this system hadn't yet been used in wide-scale discoveries or in the creation of revolutionary technologies. As we look back, the year 1700 appears as a time of transition. The modern world as we know it hadn't yet arrived, but we can see the ideas developed during the 17th century that would fully bloom in the centuries to come.

The executive producer of Everything Everywhere Daily is Charles Daniel. The associate producers are Austin Oakton and Cameron Kiefer. I want to thank everyone who supports the show over on Patreon. Your support helps make this podcast possible. I'd also like to thank all the members of the Everything Everywhere community who are active on the Facebook group and the Discord server. If you'd like to join in the discussion, there are links to both in the show notes. And as always, if you leave a review or send me a boostagram, you too can have it read on the show.