The Battle of Gaugamela
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In the year 331 BC, one of the most important battles in world history took place. The vastly outnumbered forces of Alexander the Great lined up against those of Darius III, leader of the Persian Empire. The outcome of the battle didn't just change the map of the world in the 4th century BC. It changed the world in such a profound way that it can still be seen today. Learn more about the Battle of Gaugamela and how it changed the world on this episode of Everything Everywhere Daily.

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In a previous episode, I gave a list of what I thought were the most important battles in world history. One of the battles in that episode was the Battle of Galgamella. And to be completely honest, it would be near the top of that list. This was the battle that made Alexander the Great great. Had he lost, he probably would have been an interesting footnote in history and would have been known as Alexander the Kid with Potential.

The Battle of Galgamella wasn't just a battle with huge implications, but it was also one of the most masterful strategic battles in ancient history. So, why is this battle so important? In several other previous episodes, I covered the rivalry between Greece and the Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire, to distinguish it from later Persian Empires.

The Persian Empire was huge. It was the largest empire in the world at that point in history, and it spanned from Libya, Egypt, the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, the Caucasus, much of Central Asia, Afghanistan, and parts of Pakistan. The Persians tried and failed several times to cross the Aegean Sea to invade Greece. They were defeated at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC and were held at bay by 300 Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC.

Then they were defeated by the Greeks at the battles of Plataea and Mycale in 479 BC. The threat of the Persians hung over Greece for over a century. When Philip II of Macedon conquered and unified the city-states of Greece, he dreamt of taking the fight to Persia. He was assassinated before he could fulfill this dream. So the burden was then passed on to his young son, who became the new king of Macedon, Alexander.

Alexander, who was tutored by none other than Aristotle, turned out to be a military genius. In 334 BC, Alexander crossed into Asia with approximately 40,000 troops and defeated the Persians at the Battle of Granicus. He continued south, securing Asia Minor, aka modern-day Turkey, before winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, where he first confronted the Persian ruler Darius III.

The Battle of Issus will certainly be a subject of a future episode. Instead of pursuing Darius after Issus, Alexander turned south to conquer Phoenicia, Egypt and Mesopotamia, ensuring his rear was secure and the Persian navy couldn't threaten Greece. In 331 BC, after capturing Egypt and being declared the son of Amun in the Siwa Oasis, he was installed as pharaoh. With these conquests in his rearview mirror, Alexander advanced towards the Persian heartland and set his sights on Darius.

After his humiliating feat at the Battle of Issus, Darius knew that he would have to deal with Alexander eventually. Because Alexander didn't pursue him immediately, he had some time to regroup and assemble an enormous army. Because Alexander was coming to him, as Alexander approached, Darius was able to pick where the battle would take place.

He chose to make his stand near Gaugamela, a flat plain near present-day Mosul, Iraq, where his cavalry and war chariots could be effectively deployed. To maximize his advantage, Darius actually had the battlefield cleared and leveled in advance, ensuring that his chariots could move without obstruction. Darius III's army at the Battle of Gaugamela was a vast and diverse force composed of soldiers from across the Persian Empire.

Unlike Alexander's army, which was largely homogeneous and highly disciplined, Darius relied on a coalition of troops from different regions, each bringing their own style of warfare. At the core of the Persian army were the Immortals, the elite Persian infantry who served as Darius' personal bodyguard. These soldiers were heavily armed and highly trained, forming a disciplined and reliable unit.

Alongside them were Greek mercenaries and experienced warriors who fought in the phalanx formation, similar to Alexander's Macedonian forces. These mercenaries were amongst the best infantry available to Darius and were expected to hold the center of his formation. He also had a plethora of cavalry units, including Persian heavy cavalry, Scythian and Bactrian light cavalry, chariots, and even war elephants from India.

Despite his numerical advantage, Darius's army suffered from coordination challenges. The diversity of troops, while showcasing the vast reach of the Persian Empire, also meant that they lacked unified discipline. Estimates of the size of the Persian army range from 100,000 to a quarter million men, and I've even seen some estimates which place the numbers at close to a million. Darius's plan was simply to use his superior numbers to outflank Alexander and surround him.

Alexander knew that he was going to be vastly outnumbered. Estimates placed the size of his force at somewhere around 47,000. Alexander approached the Battle of Gaugamela with meticulous strategic planning, keen awareness of the terrain, and a deep understanding both of his own army's strengths and his enemy's weaknesses.

His preparation began well before the actual engagement, as he carefully analyzed the battlefield, studied Persian tactics, and devised a flexible battle plan that would allow him to counter Darius's numerical superiority. As Alexander advanced into the heart of the Persian Empire, he knew that Darius would make a stand with his largest and best-prepared force yet.

Unlike the Battle of Issus, where Darius was caught in a geographically constrained position, this time the Persian king had chosen an open battlefield near Gaugamela, a location that favored his larger army and especially his chariots. Upon learning of Darius's preparations, Alexander took his time and did not rush into battle. He led his forces towards the battlefield at a deliberate pace, allowing his men to rest and recover from the long march.

This ensured that his army arrived at Galgamella in peak fighting condition, whereas Darius's troops had been kept on high alert for several days in anticipation of an immediate attack. The night before the battle, Alexander personally went out to observe the terrain that they would be fighting on. He knew what Darius was going to try to do. Darius had scythed chariots, which were chariots with blades on the sides that could cut through a formation of men.

Alexander simply trained his troops to form spaces to let the chariots run right through where they could then be taken out by javelins. He knew that Darius would try to envelop him from the sides, so he created a formation that had 45-degree angles to the Persians, not a straight line, with his infantry in the center and cavalry on both wings. He also had a strong reserve force in the rear anticipating a Persian flanking maneuver. However, the key to Alexander's battle strategy was Darius himself.

Alexander knew he couldn't just beat the Persians straight up. The key was attacking Darius the person. Without Darius, he knew that the entire Persian army would fall apart and lose the will to fight. This was not that dissimilar to the strategy he used at the Battle of Issus, to great effect when he forced Darius to flee the battlefield. The battle commenced on October 1, 331 BC.

During the battle, Darius was situated behind his troops guarded by his bodyguard. Alexander was at the front, personally leading his troops. As the battle unfolded, the critical point in the battle occurred when Alexander led a cavalry attack on the right flank with his elite companion cavalry, pulling the Persian forces out of position. As the Persian forces moved to address the cavalry attack, a gap opened up in the Persian center, exposing Darius.

Recognizing this opportunity, Alexander pivoted and led his companion cavalry in a swift and concentrated charge targeting the Persian center where Darius was positioned in his chariot. The charge was devastating as the disciplined Macedonian cavalry, supported by light infantry, broke through the weakened Persian ranks.

The sight of Alexander himself at the forefront of the assault, wielding his sword and cutting through Persian defenses, caused moral panic among the troops surrounding Darius. Darius, seeing his elite bodyguard units faltering and recognizing the very real possibility of being captured or killed, lost his nerve. He turned his chariot and fled the battlefield, abandoning his army at a critical moment.

His sudden retreat, just as Alexander anticipated, caused immediate chaos amongst his forces as many soldiers, witnessing their king's departure, also began to flee. What had been a hard-fought battle quickly transformed into a rout, with Persian units collapsing in disarray. Thousands of Persian troops were slaughtered in the retreat and the remaining forces dispersed. When Darius fled, he basically abdicated the Persian throne.

Alexander then marched unopposed into Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, seizing immense wealth. After fleeing the Battle of Gaugamela, Darius retreated eastward, hoping to regroup and continue resisting Alexander. However, his authority crumbled as many of his remaining satraps and generals had lost faith in him. Eventually, his own commander, Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, betrayed and captured him.

In July of 330 BC, as Alexander's forces closed in, Pestas and his men stabbed Darius and left him to die in a cart near the city of Hecatempylos. So why is this battle so important? The Battle of Gaugamela had a profound and lasting impact on the modern world by shaping the course of history in several fundamental ways. Its outcome led to the fall of the Persian Empire and the spread of Greek culture across a vast region, creating the foundation for the Hellenistic era.

This period saw Greek language, philosophy, and scientific advancements merge with Persian, Egyptian, and Indian traditions, influencing the development of later civilizations, including the Roman and Byzantine empires. The Hellenistic influence extended into fields such as governance, law, art, and education, elements of which are still present in modern societies. Militarily, the battle demonstrated the power of tactical brilliance over sheer numbers.

Alexander's use of feigned retreats, oblique formations, and strategic cavalry maneuvers became fundamental lessons in military strategy. His approach inspired later commanders such as Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte, and even modern military leaders. These leaders studied his techniques to better understand battlefield adaptability in leadership. Military academies today continue to analyze the Battle of Gaugamela as a case study in strategic warfare.

Economically and culturally, Alexander's victory created a bridge between East and West. By overthrowing the Persian Empire, he established a new trade and communications network that paved the way for the Silk Road, linking the Mediterranean to Central and South Asia. This connection facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and religions, ultimately influencing the development of global commerce and cross-cultural interactions that persist to this very day.

Alexander's conquests also deeply affected the political structure of empires. His administrative approach, which combined elements of Greek and Persian governance, set a precedent for later multi-ethnic empires, including the Romans, the Ottomans, and the British Empire. His vision of a unified world under a single ruler inspired future leaders and shaped the idea of globalization. The psychology and philosophical legacy of the battle is equally significant.

Alexander became the model of an ideal leader, studied and admired by rulers throughout history. His ambition, charisma, and military genius made him a legendary figure whose influence can still be seen in leadership studies, political thought, and cultural narratives about conquest and unity. Ultimately, the Battle of Gaugamela was more than just a military victory.

It was a transformative event that shaped the ancient world and laid the groundwork for many aspects of modern civilization, from military doctrine to political structures, cultural diffusion, and economic networks. Its influence is deeply embedded in the way the world functions today, and it's all due to decisions made on a battlefield in northern Iraq over 2,300 years ago.

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