How Was The Universe Created?
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Hey, But Why listeners, this is Jane Lindholm. You might have heard recently that we brought our shows to the airwaves of Vermont Public Radio. We took over the daily news show, Vermont Edition, which I also host. We were so pleased to get so many questions from so many of you around the world. And some of you were even able to call in during the live show.

We know not all of you were able to listen while it aired, so we thought we'd bring you the whole hour now right here in your podcast feed. Now, of course, we can't take your phone calls because the show already happened, but we do hope to do another one of these call-in programs live sometime soon, maybe this winter. All right, so settle in and listen. This is our show all about the Big Bang and space with astronomer John O'Meara. Here you go. ♪

I'm Jane Lindholm, and if you are a regular listener in this space, you might have noticed that this is not the regular Vermont Edition theme music that you usually hear at noon. Today, But Why is taking over the airwaves. But Why is VPR's podcast for curious kids. We put out a new episode every two weeks, and we have listeners all over the world. In fact, we've gotten quite a few

We've gotten questions from kids in more than 47 states, and I think it's almost 40 countries now. But we're not usually on the radio, so we thought we'd change things up today and hope to catch some kids during school vacation. Luckily, the producers of Vermont Edition were kind enough to give us this space. In case you're unfamiliar with the show, But Why is a program where kids ask the questions and drive the direction of each episode. And it's producer Melody Beaudet's job and my job to find interesting people to offer answers.

We have gotten some pretty far out questions over the last two years. Questions like these. My name is Sasha and I live in Brooklyn, New York City, United States of America, North America Earth. What is the most recent prediction of how the Big Bang happened? How did the Big Bang happen? Why?

Did the Big Bang happen? And what made it happen? Why did the Big Bang happen? So after Sasha there, you heard five-year-old Arjun from Regina, Saskatchewan, six-year-old Maya from Brooklyn, New York, and three-year-old Sylvia in Boston. And you know, they are not the only ones wondering about the origins of space and time. So today we are going to devote the hour to kids' questions about space. And we're going to ask them to ask questions about space.

If you have a young one listening, have them send a question to questions at butwhykids.org. That email address, again, is questions at butwhykids.org. We have a very special guest joining us today who has the enthusiasm and the knowledge to tackle the tall task of answering all kinds of questions about space from the younger set.

John O'Meara is an astronomer and he is the chair, that means the head, of the physics department at St. Michael's College in Colchester, Vermont. John, it's a pleasure to have you back on But Why. Thanks, Jane. I am so excited to be here. This is super fun. Really? Why do you think it's so fun? I think it's so fun because, A, I love the podcast. I absolutely love the podcast. I think that the kids ask just the best questions ever. And they're going to have to get used to me answering occasionally, I don't know, but that's actually...

It's good that adults don't have all the answers. And I'm really excited that it's come to Vermont Edition, that we're doing it live and we're on Facebook and all this stuff. It's great. All right. Let's get started because we have gotten more than 100 questions even before the show about space. And we're going to hear a few more here about the Big Bang and the beginning of the universe. I am Benjamin. I am seven years old.

I live in Brazil and I want to know, how did the universe start? Hi, my name is Zoe. I'm six years old. I live in Cary, North Carolina. My question is, why did the universe get made? My name is Genevieve. I'm seven years old and I live in Austin, Texas. And my question is, how was the universe created? My name is Naveen and I live in Norwood, Massachusetts.

And I'm four years old. And my question is, how does the universe come to be? Thank you. My name is Raya. I am five years old. My town is Winooski. And my question is, how is space made? My name is Rizwan. I live in Valley Stream, New York. I am six years old. My question is, how did the universe start?

Big questions, John, and a broad spread of kids of different ages and from all over the world. And before you tackle the Big Bang and the start of the universe, I just want to add a couple more questions that really get at how mind-boggling this can all be. How come before the Big Bang happened, outer space was the ball that an adult could fit in his hand? Thank you. How did the Big Bang happen if there was nothing there before that?

My question is, if space didn't exist before the Big Bang and everything was all in one dot, then where was the dot? Where did it exist if there was no space and what was outside of it?

You're blowing my mind. That was Yarden, who's six and a half and lives in Brookline, Massachusetts. Marley is seven and lives in the Czech Republic. And seven-year-old Diego from California. And let's go to our phone calls. Here's Anna in Rochester, New York. Hi, Anna. You have a question about the start of the universe?

Uh-huh. What is it? My question is, how did space form? Oh, okay. John and Mira, we're going to start small, get really big, a tiny dot that became everything that we know and are today. Yeah, we're going to start with everything and end with everything. Well, thank you, everybody, for these questions. This is actually some of the hardest questions we can ask.

as human beings, which is how did the universe start and if it had a start, what came before it and all that stuff. So a little bit of history. This idea of the Big Bang model of the universe was a happy marriage between math and...

and telescopes, right? Early on in the 20th century, Albert Einstein and a number of people came up with a theory that could be applied to the whole universe. We call that general relativity. And at the same time, Edwin Hubble, using some tools developed by Henrietta Swan Leavitt, figured out a way to get distances to really far away things. And when Hubble used Leavitt's tools and looked at galaxies, he saw that they were going away from us. And in every direction he looked, the galaxies were going away from us.

What do you mean going away from us? Not just like you can see into the distance, but they were actually – They could actually see that the galaxies were moving away from us, kind of like if you look at a car and you can see that it's driving away from you. But what was weird is that at every car that Hubble looked at, it was driving away from them. And so the only explanation that Hubble had placed inside the context of the model was that the universe was expanding. So it's getting bigger as time goes on, bigger and bigger. Right.

The problem is that you can run that clock backwards. And if you run the clock backwards, it means it's getting smaller and smaller and smaller. And then eventually, at some point in time, a dot that you could hold in your hand, the entire universe, everything, every piece of matter and energy in the universe was in something smaller than the size of an atom, let alone a dot.

And so the moment that this tiny, tiniest, tiniest thing that was the entire universe began to expand, we called that the Big Bang because it was big. It was everything. Bang because it was explosive. It was as much energy as you can possibly imagine all located in one space. Now comes the bad news, the answer to the question, what about before the bang? The answer is we don't know. One of the wonderful things about cosmology and trying to understand the whole universe is that

That we understand some aspects of it, and those aspects are limited to what we can see with our tools today, and it's limited to what we can see by the speed of light and various other things. And right now, we have no tools to answer the question, what became before the bank? And some people might be unhappy with that answer. That answer really excites me because it means we have a lot more work to do, and that's the way that science works.

We have a really good model for things, but the model runs short, falls short of answering what we want to know. And that's a really good – all these questions about before the bang is one of the things the model can't answer, which means we have a lot more work to do. Which means that some of the young people who are listening might be among those who help to figure it out. Absolutely. I mean when four-year-olds are asking the top questions in cosmology today, that just makes my heart sing because I know that they're going to be the ones to answer them.

Well, let's go to more because we're talking about the universe and how it was created. But several of our listeners actually want to know about the boundaries of the universe and what's beyond it. Hello, my name is Jacqueline and I'm from Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and I am eight years old. My question is, is there an edge of the universe? And if there is, will we ever reach it?

Hi, my name is Rhea. I'm eight years old. I live in Columbia, Maryland. And my question is, where does the universe start and end? Hi, my name is Tessa. I am nine years old and from Evanston, Illinois. And my question is, how far does the universe go and does it stop? I'm five and a half years old in Germany on space.

What's beyond space, John O'Meara? That's a good question, Amelia. Thank you for asking. Well, so all these questions have to do with the edge of the universe, the boundary of the universe. And that kind of depends on the question you're asking. One of the boundaries that we have for the universe is what is the farthest possible thing we can see with the biggest, greatest telescopes we can build? And that's one boundary of the universe, but it's not necessarily the edge. It's just the limit of what we can see.

The other way to think about the universe is imagine you're standing on a globe, right? A really big globe. Or just standing on the earth. And let's say the earth was just a perfect ball. There was no water or mountains or anything like that. And you started walking, right? When would you stop?

You wouldn't. Never. You just keep going around and around and around and around. And so that ball has a size. It has a shape that is limited. It has a size. But if you want to keep walking on it, you could walk forever. So it's an example of a thing that has a size but is limitless depending on how you want to talk about it. And that's one of the models that we have for the universe. Again, I'm going to give you the unsatisfying answer that we don't definitely know the shape of this thing.

But one of the models is kind of like that. It has a size and the universe is expanding, but it's expanding in both space and time. And that's a really hard thing to visualize. I can't do it. Very few people can. A lot of times we stick it in computers and hope we get the answer out. But...

those boundaries are just depending on what tools you're trying to use to describe it. Don't you want to know, though, what's on the other side? I want to know what's on the other side. Well, in terms of what's on the other side, that's one of the things that we should think about when we're thinking about the universe. The universe is everything. Everything. Everything that is in all of space and time. It is the sum of all those things in space and time. So it doesn't really have something outside of it because it is it.

And this is kind of hard to visualize because we're so used to things that have boundaries and edges and boxes that you can open and you can say, what's outside the box? What's inside the box? The problem with the universe is that it is the box and it is the room and it is the stuff inside the box. And there's really no way to say there's an inside or an outside. Let's go to Logan, who is calling in from Michigan. Hi, Logan. Nice to talk with you. Hey, Logan, you there? Hi, my question is,

So my question is, did we really land on the moon? And how do we know if we did? I've seen pictures and theories that say that they just took the picture on somewhere that looked like the moon. And the reason why they say this is because the flag was moving, and they believe that there's no gravity on the moon, so the flag couldn't move.

Ooh, Logan, good question. So how do we know and how do we trust people who say we landed on the moon first? Well, first and foremost, I've met an astronaut who's walked on the moon, and I believe him. But that's not enough, right? To do science right, you want to test a theory, you want to have proof. So for example, when the astronauts were on the moon, they left tiny mirrors on

And they did this so that we could actually bounce lasers off of the surface of the moon to make a really, really, really precise measurement to how far away the moon is. And we wouldn't be able to get that laser signal bounce back to us unless somebody was there to put the mirrors in the first place.

Also, there is a satellite orbiting around the moon called the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, and it can actually see the footprints, the trails left by the astronauts on the moon because there's no atmosphere there, no wind to blow it away. You can actually see the footprints that were left there. Absolutely.

As for the flag, the reason why the flag wiggled was because when the lunar lander, the part with the astronauts, and it took back off, it blew away a lot of gas and dust around it because it was just trying to take off and its thrust made the flag wiggle. Okay. Well, so we're talking about the atmosphere in space. Yeah. And take a deep breath with me, John. Okay.

Doesn't that feel good? Oh, that oxygen. Good stuff. But if we were in space, as Logan pointed out, we wouldn't be breathing the same way. So here are a couple questions we've gotten about the atmosphere in space. Hi, my name is Sam. I am nine years old. I am from Ontario, Canada. And my question is, why is there no oxygen in space?

Hi, my name is Piper. I'm seven years old and I live in Westminster, Colorado. I have a question about space. Why does Earth have oxygen and space doesn't? Okay, and if space is not made out of oxygen, what is space made out of? Here's another question for you. Hi, my name is Ezra and I'm from Florida and I'm six years old. And my question is, what is space made out of?

My name is Tommy. I live in Shoreline, Washington. My age is seven. My question is, what is space made out of? So if it's not oxygen, what is it?

Okay. So let's first talk about oxygen as an example. One of the questions came from somebody in Colorado, and I grew up in Colorado. And one of the differences between being in Colorado and, say, being in Vermont is the altitude, right? If you run around really fast in Colorado, you're going to run out of breath quicker because you're higher up, and there's less oxygen, there's less air higher up. And as you go farther and farther and farther away from the surface of the Earth, the amount of atmosphere just drops down and down and down and down. It gets

It gets thinner and thinner and thinner. And that continues all the way. If you're going hundreds of miles away from the Earth, then there's still a little tiny bit of atmosphere there. In fact, the International Space Station is slowing down a little bit because of drag against the atmosphere. So they have to boost it up every now and then. So as you get farther away from planets that have atmospheres, you have less and less of that atmosphere. But there's still oxygen out there.

In fact, there's oxygen all throughout the interstellar medium, the space between stars, the stuff that lives inside of galaxies. And there's even a tiny bit of oxygen outside of galaxies, what we call the circumgalactic medium, an even tinier amount, like two atoms in a box that's six feet in diameter.

on each side of oxygen out there in the intergalactic medium. And this oxygen came from the very first stars in the universe. They turned hydrogen into helium and then helium into carbon and eventually oxygen. And that oxygen in that stuff outside the galaxies eventually starts to fall in, fall in, and

and then forms into stars and planets around them. And that's actually the history of the oxygen you're all breathing right now, is that they were created in stars billions of years ago and flew through sometimes intergalactic and circumgalactic space to eventually get incorporated into the solar system, the young Earth, which then held on to its atmosphere, and boom, the stuff that's there.

Yeah. See, I knew that. Oxygen's tasted really old. It's really old stuff. It's really old stuff. As for what space is made of, if we want to talk about what the universe is made of, here's the really, really weird bit. And this was something that I worked on a long time ago in graduate school. We figured out – well, not me, but a lot of people working together – figured out that if you add up all the energy in the universe –

only 4% of all the energy in the universe is made out of atoms. So if I ask what the universe is made out of, only 4% of it is made out of the stuff that we all experience, atoms.

The rest of it is made out of stuff called dark matter and dark energy. And whenever an astronomer calls something dark something, that means they don't understand it. They know that it's there, but they don't know what it's made out of. So to answer the question, what's the universe made out of? I can only tell you what 4% of it is made out of. The 96%, I just don't know yet. We're working on it.

All right, let us go to Patty, who's calling in from Pennsylvania. Hi, Patty. Hi. I want to know how to let these...

Swallow stars. Ooh, good question. How do black holes swallow stars? We've got a lot of questions about black holes, John, including Tabby and Zoe from Glenside, Pennsylvania, who want to know how a black hole swallows a star. Dean is 10 in Arizona. How is a black hole even possible according to the laws of physics? And here's a recorded question from Isabel, who's 6 and lives in Colebrook, New Hampshire. Why are black holes called black holes? What do they look like?

why do they suck things up? And here's another one. My name is Langston. I'm five years old. I live on Manhattan and Gunston. My question is, is there gravity in black holes and how black holes suck up huge stars and how black holes be made?

Lots of people want to know blah, blah, blah. I'm going to give you two minutes. Okay. Let's do an experiment. Everybody who's listening, go ahead and grab like a rubber ball or something like that. I'm going to use my little black thing in my key wallet, right? And if I let go of it, it drops, right? Why does it drop? It drops because there's a force on the thing down.

due to the Earth. We call this the gravitational force. In fact, it's a neutral force. There's a force on the thing and there's a force on the Earth, but the Earth is really big, so we don't see the Earth flying up nearly as much as we see the thing falling down. That's what we call the gravitational force. Now we're going to do another experiment, which is I'm going to throw the thing up. Now if I throw it up with only a little bit of oomph to it, a little bit of speed, it goes up and falls back down, right? This is how baseball works. If you throw it up fast enough on the surface of the Earth...

If you throw it up at 11 kilometers per second, it will not come back. It will escape the Earth's gravitational pull. We call that an escape velocity, 11 kilometers per second. I'm going to try to jump really fast someday and do that. Yeah, you've got to jump really fast. If you replace the Earth with the sun, that escape velocity is now many hundreds of kilometers per second. So many thousands of – tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands of miles per hour. That would escape the sun.

Instead, if you have an object that has so much mass concentrated in so tiny of a space, you would have to throw something at faster than the speed of light to get it to escape.

And we know that nothing can go faster than the speed of light. And so those kind of objects that are that massive, that have that strong of a gravitational force, nothing can escape from them, not even light. And so we call them black holes because they're not emitting light. And so you can't even see them. We can only guess that they're there because of how things orbit around them.

So the answer to the question of how do stars get sucked up by black holes and this, that, and the other thing is the answer to the same question of how does a ball fall? It's just the gravitational force. But in this case, it's for something that is really, really, really massive, has a lot of mass, much more mass than the Earth, concentrated to a much smaller space. And out of that, nothing can get out.

I'm impressed you did that in two minutes. Well done, John. See, this is why we have John O'Meara with us. This is the But Why Kids podcast takeover of Vermont Edition, and today we are exploring the mysteries of space. Coming up, we will be placing ourselves in this galaxy. We will be placing ourselves back on Earth to look at how the Earth was formed, how we know that the Earth is round, and other terrestrial questions.

This is But Why. I'm Jane Lindholm. It's not Vermont edition. It's a takeover. We are having a live broadcast of the VPR podcast, But Why, a podcast for curious kids. Usually we release a new episode every two weeks that families around the world pick up and listen to whenever they're ready.

And families tell us they listen on their way to school and camp, on long road trips, even sometimes before bed to wind down without screen time. We also know a lot of teachers use episodes of the podcast in their classrooms as well. And today we are inviting adults to listen and young listeners to call in live and have your questions about space answered in this live broadcast. We are talking with one of our favorite guests. John O'Meara is the head of the physics department at St. Michael's College here in Vermont, and he's an astronomer. A

Astronomy is the study of the moon, the stars, the sun, the planets, the galaxies far beyond ours. It is the study of everything outside of the Earth's atmosphere. And Professor O'Meara has devoted his life to looking far beyond the Earth and then bringing that knowledge back down to Earth to us so that we have a better understanding of where we fit in. He's taking your questions today. Let's go to Annie, who is calling in from Virginia. Hi, Annie. You're on the air. Thanks for calling. Hello.

Hello, my name is Annie and I'm five years old and I live in Norfolk, Virginia. And my question is, why do we need stars? Why do we need stars? Thank you for that question, Annie. Wow, that's a good question, Annie. I think we need stars.

Because we need the sun, and the sun is a star, right? Every piece of life on Earth has depended in some way on the sun providing the energy either in sunlight or the byproducts of the sunlight like the plants or the plants.

byproducts like the animals that eat the plants and the things that eat the other animals, all of that links back to sunlight. And the sun is a star and the sun is one of many stars. In fact, hundreds of billions of stars in our Milky Way galaxy. And there are hundreds of billions of galaxies. So why do we need stars? Well, we need stars because we're alive and we're here.

Well, we have a lot of other questions about stars as well. And let's get to two here from Cade, who's five and lives in Raleigh, North Carolina, and wants to know what stars are made of and how stars form. And then here's some recorded questions. Hi, my name is Anna. I would like to know how stars are formed. I am six years old and I live in New York City.

My name is Kale, and I'm eight years old. I live in Los Angeles, and my question is, how are stars born, and how do they die?

Okay. So we're going to do the exact same experiment. We're going to hold up the thing or we're going to drop the thing. And we already know why this is happening. It's that gravitational force. Well, the same thing happens early on in the life of stars. The atoms that are flying out there in interstellar space, if there's enough of them, start to attract each other due to gravity and they come in and start to compress down. And when they get close enough together and there's a lot of them, it starts to heat up. And eventually it gets so hot that –

fusion turns on. And when fusion turns on, the star is making all this light and all this energy output. And eventually those two things, the collapsing down from gravity and the pushback from fusion balance, and boom, you've got a star.

And so they're just made out of the same stuff that the rest of the universe is made out of. It's made out of the atoms, primarily hydrogen and helium, but a couple of other things like the carbon and oxygen and the oxygen we're breathing. And the question about how stars die, eventually, just like a car, they run out of fuel. And if they run out of fuel, then there's nothing to push back against gravity. And the star can sometimes start to collapse. And some of them collapse so violently that...

They explode in what we call a supernova. And that supernova makes some of the heavier elements like gold or silver, like all the neat stuff in jewelry and all sorts of other things, platinum. Those are all made out of stars? Those are made out of stars that went, right? That's where all of those heavier elements come from. Wow. Okay, so more star questions here. Here's one about shooting stars. Hi, I'm Adam. I...

I live in Bahrain, and I'm six years old. And my question is, why are shooting stars so rare to find at night? Why are shooting stars so rare to find at night? Most of the time, anyway. Well, most of the time. The answer is that in most places that we live...

The sky is brighter than where we don't live. That is to say the lights from our houses, our cities, our airports, our streets make the sky a little bit brighter than it is if you were to go out to the middle of nowhere. Out in Bahrain, for example, you could probably go pretty far away from some of the major cities and look up and I would guarantee you, I would guarantee you that you'd see a couple of shooting stars at night. Shooting stars are basically just leftover stuff from comets that

And that leftover stuff from comets comes into the atmosphere, gets really hot and makes a streak as it burns up into the atmosphere. And those are shooting stars. And I think if anybody goes out to a really dark place and lies up on their back and just looks up all night, I guarantee you in a dark place you're going to see a shooting star or many of them every night. And then there are special times when the Earth will go through a big –

bunch of stuff left over from a comet. We call those a meteor shower. And that's when you see many of them per minute. You know, you can see tens of them per minute. It is so cool. It's so cool. Okay. And two more quick questions about stars, because I promised we would come back down to Earth. Okay. Okay. So you know how we can see the stars at night? Yeah. Even though they're millions of miles away, right? Yeah.

So here's Nora's question about that. My name is Nora. I live in Newton, Massachusetts, and I'm four years old. And my question is, why do the stars shine so bright? So Nora's saying, why do the stars shine so bright? The reason why the stars shine so bright is because there's so much stuff, so many atoms crunched in in such a tight ball with so much protein.

pressure that they turn on that fusion and that fusion is one of the most powerful energy sources that we can think of. And so they're releasing a huge amount of energy and that energy is in the form of light. And so the reason why they're so bright is because there's so much stuff there getting turned into energy, getting turned into light.

Okay, so here's a question from Cora. She's seven, and she lives in Charlotte, North Carolina. What is Stardust? What is Stardust? What is Stardust? Well, it depends. I mean, there was a movie called Stardust, which was an okay one. It was all right.

And sometimes we refer to Stardust when we're talking about meteor showers. We see the shooting stars and we refer to Stardust there. There was also a mission called Stardust which was trying to pick up little pieces of a comet and

So stardust can mean lots of different things. I think sometimes people refer to stardust as just the leftover stuff from stars after they die. Once again, that's that oxygen you're breathing right now. That's stardust, the carbon inside of you, stardust. So what's stardust? You are stardust.

That's wild. That's wild. And that's one of the reasons why I really love astronomy is we don't even have to bring it back to the Earth Earth. We can just think about ourselves. We are made out of star stuff. We are made out of stardust. And so there's songs about that. Yeah. Yeah, there are. There are. All right. Buddy is calling in from Glendale, California. Hi, buddy. Nice to talk with you.

Hi. Hi. My name is Buddy, and I'm seven years old, and my question is, is there other universes? Buddy, thanks for the question. Ooh, deep one, Buddy. That's a good one. See, when I said that the universe was everything—

That was one model of the universe. You can see how I talked about models and this, that, and the other thing. Well, one of the ways we tried to explain one of the first questions we had, what happened to the universe before the bang, is a model that we call the multiverse in which there's not one universe but sometimes an infinite number of universes and we just live within one of them.

So, unfortunately, buddy, my answer to your question is we don't know if there's other universes. And it's one of those kind of things where actually doing an experiment to test it would only be an indirect one. We can't directly go to some other universe. Yet. Yet. Yet. You're right. Thank you for your optimism. Yeah.

But we can't think of experiments yet that can tap into other universes. But we can think about theories that can try to constrain other universes and then we can do indirect tests, which is oftentimes how we do a lot of science. Because, you know, we're at a certain part of the universe and we try to make statements about the whole universe. And so a lot of those things are indirect. Do you think there are other universes? Yes.

Just, you know, what's your gut tell you? Or are you a scientist? You can't trust your gut. Well, I can trust myself to be wrong. I think that's what I trusted most about being a scientist is that 99% of the time we're wrong and –

That's actually why science is great is because we're wrong most of the time and we figure out how we're wrong. We try to be a little bit more right and along the way we get wrong again. And we just keep trying to figure out more and more what parts of that are right and make that better. So I'm not going to tell you the answer because it's guaranteed to be wrong. Yeah.

All right, fair enough. You're listening to But Why, a podcast for curious kids. We're taking over VPR's Airwaves in place of Vermont Edition for a full hour of questions about space and Earth. I promise, Earth. We are answering many of the more than 100 questions we have received over the last two years all about space, and we're taking even more questions live. You can check us out on the But Why Kids Facebook page where we're streaming live, or if you have a young one with a question, you can email questions at butwhykids.org.

Our special guest today is astronomer John O'Meara. He is tackling all our questions. They are coming at you, John, like a meteor storm today. But we are so glad that you are here with us. And, you know, we've been looking at the creation of the universe and space, but we have some specific questions about the planet we live on. My name is Nina. I'm seven years old. I live in Windhoff, Vermont. And my question is, how was the Earth made?

And I want to know why, how the earth was made. How is the earth made? How is the world made? How is the earth formed? How is the earth created? My name is Taj. I live in Abington, Pennsylvania. I'm seven years old. My question is, how did the world start? What else? Your question.

My question is, how did the word come to life? Okay, so many questions about how the earth came to life. We heard from Nina, Eli, Zita, Cyrus, Maura, Belen, Sierra, Taj, Sadie, Sophie, Beatrice, and Finn. Oh, and there's this one too. Hello, my name is River. I'm six years old. I live in Ponyville, Vermont. And my question is, how old is the world? Bye-bye!

So, John, how old is the Earth and how did it form? What can you tell us? Okay. So our best guess right now is that the Earth is a little over four and a half billion years old. And we can guess that based off of things like meteorites that are also in the solar system that have been around there since the formation and digging down really deep into the Earth to find the oldest rocks that we can and knowing about how atoms work.

And the answer to the question of how the Earth formed, guess what? It's the same answer as how did the sun form, and it's the same answer as how do black holes work. It's gravity.

Early on in the formation of the solar system, a lot of stuff started to fall in and that formed the sun. But there was leftover stuff farther out. And that leftover stuff had a lot of things like iron and silicon in it. And that stuff clumped together into a rock. And that rock, as it got bigger, had a larger and larger gravitational force. More stuff glommed onto it until eventually we had the young Earth.

Earth. And that's how we formed all the inner planets in the solar system. And a similar process probably happened for the outer planets like Jupiter and Saturn, the big gas giants. But it's all gravity. It's all that gravitational force. Gravity is the most important game in town in the universe in terms of getting stuff to fall together and start to do things. Okay. But we have a lot of questions from listeners who want to know why the Earth is the only place that has gravity.

Oh, but the Earth isn't the only place that has gravity. In fact, there's a wonderful video on YouTube you should look at about the moon where one of the astronauts actually drops a wrench and a feather at the same time on the moon, and it falls a little bit slower. That's because the gravitational force is a little bit less, but there's gravity on the surface of the moon. And if you were to stand on the sun—please don't stand on the sun—

But if you were to stand on the sun, the gravitational force would be more. And the difference between those three objects is the mass, how much mass is in them. So the Earth has a little bit less mass than the sun. The moon has a little bit less mass than the Earth. But because you have mass, you have a gravitational force. Okay. Well, you know how the Earth is round? Yeah. How do we know that? Wait. Let our listeners ask you.

Why is the Earth round?

Hi, my name's Karu. I'm five years old. I live in America. And my question is, why does it seem like when you're biking, driving, and walking, this earth seems like it's flat, but it's actually a round circle?

And then Ellie, who's seven and lives in Middleton, Wisconsin, wants to know why are all the planets spheres? Why aren't they cubes or pyramids or some other shape? Aha. Once again, it's that dastardly gravity. Is everything gravity, John Amara? No, not everything's gravity. But gravity is the big bully of the force in the universe. And the reason for the shapes being round is because if you have a lot of stuff floating around in space and there's one thing which is slightly bigger,

All of the stuff around it's going to be attracted to it. So I want you to close your eyes and imagine a really big rock and a bunch of small rocks around it, surrounding it in all directions. That big rock has more mass. So all of the things are going to be attracted to it. And as they all fall in, they're all falling in from all the directions. And that builds up a sphere instead of a square or a rectangle or a weird shape like my coffee cup. And so that's how they make them spheres.

To answer the question of why when you're riding on your bike the Earth looks flat, not like a sphere, is because the Earth is really, really, really big. If you had amazing eyes, like the best eyes that were ever there, you could actually see a small amount of curvature. But it's because the Earth is so big that you can't tell that it's round until you go out to space. And then you can start to see the curvature because you're now farther away from it.

Okay, let's go to Zoe, who's calling in from Glendale, Pennsylvania. Hi, Zoe. Go right ahead. Hi, I'm Zoe. And my question is, how do planets get their rings? Yeah, how do planets get their rings, John? Ooh, that's a really good question, and one that we're still trying to figure out. So one of the ways that we think planets get their rings is that when they're starting to form, the big rock...

The biggest one of them is the planet, but sometimes they're smaller size things that smash into each other and they leave debris all over the place. And that debris starts to orbit around the bigger rock. And that's how you get rings. Sometimes we think it's comets going by leaving material, but it's usually from the result of collisions. We think that stuff just smacks into other things. In fact, that's how we got our moon is that early in the formation of the Earth, something big about the size of Mars smacked into it.

and then coalesced and formed our moon. But we don't really know the answer to that question in really good detail because we don't have a time machine that could go back and watch the rings form around Saturn or the rings form around Jupiter. Do you know Jupiter has rings? In fact, all the outer planets in the solar system probably have rings except for maybe Pluto. Okay, well, then here's another question about planets. Here's Brennan. He's calling in from Minnesota. Hi, Brennan.

Hi, my name is Brennan. I'm nine years old. And my question is, why is Uranus sitting on its side? Ooh, this is a really good one. And in fact, there is a recent story about Uranus and how it's sitting on its side. We used to think, in fact...

We may still think that it was a result of a really big collision, that something very, very large smacked into Uranus early on in its history. And instead of spinning in a way that was kind of in the same plane or the same set of directions as all the other planets, that it got knocked so hard that it flipped on its side. But there's some recent research, and I can't remember the exact details, so I don't want to tell you something that's incorrect. But you should look it up.

because there was brand new news about this only about two weeks ago about Uranus that seems to think that maybe it's actually a result of something else about how Uranus formed as opposed to just a big collision. Whoa, okay. Let's go to another call here from Jackson who's calling in from Williston, Vermont. Hi, Jackson. Hi, I'm Jackson and I'm eight years old.

And my question is, how big is Jupiter's storm? Ooh, I think you're talking about the Great Red Spot on Jupiter, Jackson. The Great Red Spot gets bigger and smaller over time. We've been seeing the Great Red Spot on Jupiter since 1609 when Galileo started to look at it. And it's kind of like a giant hurricane. In fact, it's a really giant hurricane. I believe the Great Red Spot is still bigger across than the Earth. Whoa. So it's a hurricane the size of the Earth. Whoa. Yeah.

Big. Okay, you know, so we're talking about all of these planets. We're talking about space, and it's great to talk about there, but what about actually getting to the places that we're talking about? Here's three-year-old Elijah from Dripping Springs, Texas. How do I get to outer space? How does Elijah get to outer space? And here's another space travel question. Hi, my name is Lily, and I'm from Las Vegas, Nevada.

I'm six years old. My question is, how long does it take to get to outer space? How long does it take and how do we get there, John? Okay, well, if we want to just orbit around the Earth, it takes about six and a half minutes, depending on the kind of rocket that you're on. So the space shuttle took around six to eight minutes to get into low Earth orbit, but it did it by having very, very powerful rockets, much more powerful than, say, an airplane or something like that.

But if you want to go to something like the moon, right, when the astronauts went to the moon, that took a few days. And if we want to go to Mars, it may take up to a year. And the reason is, is that most of space is space. It's empty, right? There's big distances between us and the moon. The moon is 300,000 kilometers away. So it's really far away or something like that. I can't remember the answer. I should probably.

Look that up. But it's really far away. So like if you were flying in an airplane, it would take you a really, really long time to get there. So we have to build huge rockets and those are very difficult to build. And so we're going to need bigger and bigger rockets if we're going to go farther and farther away like when we go to Mars someday. Because we can't teleport. We can't just say – No teleportation yet. I'm going to be there. I'm going to think it and I've got some device and it will just – Boy, if we could do that, we would have a lot of fun. Yeah. Yeah.

Samuel, who's seven and lives in Dayton, Ohio, wants to know, is there weather in space? I mean, we talked about a big storm on another planet, but is there weather in space? Well, if we're talking about weather on planets, then yes. Like the Great Red Spot is a giant hurricane. If we're talking about weather between space, we like to call something space weather, and that's actually the sun. The sun has these storms on its surface, and sometimes those storms send particles like electrons and protons out,

And that can interact with the Earth's magnetic field. And we see that as the northern lights, the aurora borealis. But we can also see it sometimes as far south as Vermont or even farther south when there's one of these big storms sends a lot of these particles into the magnetic field. And we call that space weather. It's a different category.

kind of weather, but it's really important to monitor because we want to keep our satellites safe and our power grids safe. And so a big part of our job in studying the sun is to monitor storms like that. Okay. So we've got time for one more sort of idea here. Okay. And we've gotten a few questions about actually colonizing space. Here's one.

My name is Henry. I live in Sydney, Australia. I am eight years old, and I want to know why people are so interested in colonizing Mars, not the moon. Yeah, and Jack, who's eight and from Clinton, New York, wants to know, will humans ever be able to go to Mars? And Tilly says, are we sure that someday people will be able to live on Mars? And why Mars? I think why Mars is because it's the next natural step and because we love exploring, right? We've been to the moon.

What's next? Right. You know, when you go outside your house for the first time and then you want to go down the block and then you want to go to a new state or a new country. Well, now we want to go to new worlds. And I think it's because human beings are naturally curious and we're naturally explorers. And just think about the questions we've heard today. That's curiosity. That's exploration. And that's why we want to go to Mars and why we want to go beyond to some other planets and to different solar systems someday. Right.

John, I wish we had so much more time with you. This is a huge, big galactic thanks to astronomer and physicist John O'Meara for joining us. You're a professor and you work at St. Michael's College in Vermont. Thank you so much for talking with us today. Thank you so much, Jane. Thank you, everybody, for all the awesome questions. Keep asking them.

Yeah. And I just want to thank all of you who have sent us questions about space. We didn't even talk about the moon today. So maybe we'll do a special moon episode some other time. But we love all of your questions. We've heard them all. We listen to them all. You guys are the most amazing kids out there.

Special thanks to Vermont Edition for letting us take over the airwaves. And we had help from the Vermont Edition staff, of course, especially Matthew Smith, also Rick Singary and Sam Gale Rosen, and digital producer Meg Malone. Kim Henry took your phone calls today. But Why is produced by Melody Beaudet and me, Jane Lindholm, right here at Vermont Public Radio. Jake Rusnock handled all of that audio that you heard playing. And our theme music is by Luke Reynolds. If you like what you heard, you can find But Why wherever you get your podcasts.

And if you don't know how to get podcasts, go to vpr.net and check out our handy guide. We have a new episode every two weeks answering questions from kids all around the world on topics large and small. We hope you'll listen to another episode soon. And until then, stay curious. From PR.