Jamestown | Land of Milk and Honey | 1
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Subscribe to the American History Tellers channel on YouTube and let us know what you think. Imagine it's a May evening in 1607 on the Powhatan River. You're a Powhatan Indian guide, helping a group of two dozen Englishmen explore the area. You're standing on a small island near the falls of the river, where churning rapids cascade over rocks, spraying frothy water into the air. The English leader, Captain Christopher Newport, steps forward to command the group's attention.

"'This river shall henceforth be known as the James River, in honor of His Majesty King James I. Today, I proclaim King James the sovereign of this land.'" You watch the men cheer, and it grates against your ears. You know this land is ruled by no one but the great King Powhatan, the Chief of Chiefs, yet Newport speaks as if it belongs to another. He sweeps a satisfied gaze over his men as a younger Englishman hands him a large wooden cross—

Newport holds it up for the crowd to see. I have carved King James' name into the wood of this cross. You will place it in the ground, claiming this land for his majesty. The men move quickly, fetching tools to dig a narrow hole in the ground. You feel that you can no longer stay silent. No! Some of the settlers turn to look at you. Their expression's a mixture of confusion and annoyance. But Newport simply smiles. My friend, do not be mistaken.

Newport gestures to the cross the men are now hammering into the ground.

You stare at the cross, but you don't see unity. You see intrusion and a foreign symbol with a meaning you don't fully understand. I don't know, Captain. Newport's smile fades, and there's a hint of anger in his eyes. Why should you be offended? We have committed no violence toward you, nor have we taken anything away. We have been good to you.

You give him a slight nod, acknowledging this, and he turns his back to his men. But as you stare at the long shadow the cross casts in the evening light, you're filled with a creeping sense that these strangers have lied, and that their intentions for this land are more sinister than they claim.

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In May 1607, a group of Englishmen planted a wooden cross in the ground near the falls of a river they christened the James, in honor of King James I. They claimed the land for England, all while lying to their Indian guide about their true purpose. It marked the start of a pattern of deception that would define English dealings with native people for years to come.

At the time of this incident, six months had passed since 104 Englishmen left London and set sail for the shores of Virginia's Chesapeake Bay. On a small, marshy peninsula in the James River, they founded Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in mainland North America. These settlers risked their lives not in the name of personal freedom or religious liberty, but in pursuit of profit and imperial glory.

But the early years of Jamestown were fraught with hardship. The colonists faced a series of catastrophes, from fire and mutiny to famine and disease. Infighting and conflicts with local Indians continuously jeopardized the colony's survival. While Jamestown laid the foundation for the English colonization of North America, it also began a lasting legacy of betrayal and violence. This is Episode 1 in our four-part series, Jamestown, Land of Milk and Honey.

At the turn of the 17th century, Tidewater, Virginia was known to its inhabitants as Senecaumaca. Dozens of Indian tribes thrived in towns alongside the rivers and streams that flowed into what is now known as the Chesapeake Bay. For more than 10,000 years, indigenous people used the region's dense forests and wide, slow-moving rivers for hunting, fishing, agriculture, and trade.

By the early 1600s, the principal leader of this area was Powhatan, the shrewd and charismatic chief of chiefs. Tall and stone-faced, Powhatan cut an impressive figure. He inherited rule over six tribes and conquered more through war, marriage alliances, and skillful diplomacy. His dominion stretched across 6,000 square miles, from the banks of the James River in the south to the Potomac River in the north,

and from the eastern shore of the Chesapeake Bay to the rolling hills of the Virginia Piedmont. Virginia Indians had encountered European colonizers a handful of times in the late 1500s. Powhatan was a young man in 1570 when Spanish Jesuits established a short-lived mission along the shores of the Chesapeake Bay. Within six months, Indians killed the entire party, save for a young altar boy. A Spanish force arrived the next year and retaliated, capturing and killing some 30 Indians.

And in 1585, English settlers attempted to establish their first permanent settlement in North America after landing on Roanoke Island in the outer banks of present-day North Carolina. That winter, a group of Roanoke settlers traveled north and briefly lived with Chesapeake Indians. But sometime after 1587, the settlers mysteriously vanished from the island, and the failure of Roanoke made the English monarchy reluctant to make further attempts at colonizing America.

Twenty years later, Powhatan led a mighty empire on the Chesapeake. Some thirty tribes, each with their own chiefs, paid tribute to him, supplying food, beads, and animal skins in return for protection. There were 15,000 people under his domain, people the English would call the Powhatan. They were united by a common language, Algonquin, but there were limits to Powhatan's power.

Tribes on the fringes of his domain lived more independently, and he had powerful enemies to the west. So the men under his authority were constantly prepared for war. And Powhatan had come to believe in the threat of Europeans, the people he called Tisantesis, or strangers. But at the turn of the 17th century, Powhatan could not know that the future of Senecomica stood at a crossroads. Across the Atlantic, English investors and adventurers had set their sights on his shores.

By 1604, London was abuzz with talk of colonization. Merchants and politicians debated the risks and rewards of possible ventures motivated by the potential for personal gain and a desire to support England's imperial ambitions against rival Spain.

Explorer Bartholomew Gosnold had led an expedition to New England in 1602. Two years later, he became intent on founding an English colony in the Chesapeake Bay. He enlisted other wealthy, well-connected London gentlemen as investors, including his cousin Edward Moriah Wingfield, who had served in the British Army in Ireland and the Netherlands. He also brought in Sir Thomas Smythe, a principal investor in the East India Company, which dominated English trade in South Asia.

but one investor was from a far more modest background. Captain John Smith was just 26 years old, but he had already made a name for himself through a storied military career. He was born to a farmer in 1580, but he was too restless for a quiet life of agriculture. So when he was 16, he struck out on his own, sailing to France to join English soldiers fighting the Spanish.

After a stint sailing the Mediterranean on a pirate ship, he then joined Austrian forces fighting the Turkish army in Slovenia, Hungary, and Transylvania. He earned a reputation for bravery in battle, and after he bested three Turkish officers in hand-to-hand combat, he was awarded the title of captain.

But in 1602, he was captured and sold into slavery in Constantinople. He escaped by murdering his master, then fled through Russia. In the winter of 1604, he returned to England a hardened soldier and intrepid explorer, ready for a new adventure, with money to spare. His exploits impressed Bartholomew Gosnold, and Smith eagerly joined his venture.

But gathering a group of investors was not enough. Any new colony would need royal sanction. But thankfully, the investors came to the attention of one of the most powerful men in England, the king's chief minister, who helped secure crown support for their colony. On April 10, 1606, King James I granted a royal charter establishing the Virginia Company of London. This charter authorized the Virginia Company to found a permanent settlement in mainland North America.

Much had changed in England in the 20 years since the Roanoke colony failed. From 1585 to 1604, a long war with Spain strained English resources. So now, the newly crowned king wanted to expand England's colonial empire and challenge Spanish dominance in transatlantic trade. England was also experiencing a population boom and widespread underemployment. Colonization offered a potential solution to these problems.

But it was also a costly endeavor for the cash-strapped Crown. So the Virginia Company was structured as a joint stock company, allowing investors to buy shares and collectively fund a new colony. This way, the costs and risks of colonization could be spread among multiple investors, and the Crown could reap the benefits of colonization without bearing the substantial costs.

The Royal Charter authorized the Virginia Company to establish a colony somewhere between modern-day North Carolina and New York. A 13-member Royal Council, appointed by the Crown, would oversee the enterprise from London. The Charter also hinted at a religious purpose by including the goal of propagating the Christian religion to such people as yet live in darkness. But the Charter's emphasis on land, precious metals, and commodities made it clear that the venture's primary objective was commercial gain.

All the company founders needed now were potential settlers. And dozens of men signed on to join an initial voyage lured by the promise of gold and glory. Imagine it's an October night in 1606. You sit by the fire in your London townhome, the flames casting a warm glow on the oak-paneled walls of your drawing room. A book rests in your lap, but after a long visit to your dressmaker, followed by a series of social calls, you're struggling to stay awake.

Your husband, Edmund, enters the room and stands just inside the door. You stifle a yawn. Are you ready for bed, dear? Not yet. There's something I must discuss with you first. You close your book, a knot forming in your stomach. What is it, Edmund? I have invested in a new venture. A voyage to settle a new colony in Virginia. Virginia? But surely you don't mean... Yes. I've decided to join the voyage myself. The ship departs this winter.

You stand in shock, your book tumbling to the floor. You cannot be serious. How could you possibly even consider such a thing? It's madness. Edmund rushes towards you and takes your hand in his. Listen to me. This could make us rich beyond our wildest dreams. There are stories of mountains full of gold and silver and rivers and lakes brimming with pearls.

And it's all just waiting there, ripe for the taking. Be reasonable, dear. You couldn't possibly live off the land. You're no woodsman. You're not even a farmer. Edmund scowls, but then shrugs, a confident glint in his eye. I won't have to live off the land. The colony will trade with the Indians. We will get everything we need from them. You grip your husband's arms. Tears now spring into your eyes. Please, Edmund.

I beg you, don't do this. It's too dangerous. You could die out there. I need money to revive the estate. My creditors are going to come calling soon and I'm running out of time. How am I supposed to pay for those parties of yours? This townhouse? This will be an easy way to make a quick profit. I promise I'll only be gone for one or two years at most. One or two years? Edmund, you're making a mistake.

Your husband sighs and then cups your face in his hand. I'm sorry. The decision has already been made. He pulls away and exits the room, and you sink back into your chair, feeling powerless. Your mind spins with the terrifying images of your husband in peril in a strange land so far from the safety of home.

Of all the men who signed on to join the voyage to Virginia, roughly half were wealthy gentlemen. Many of that number were ex-soldiers and privateers with a taste for adventure. There were also a dozen skilled craftsmen and artisans, including a tailor, a surgeon, a blacksmith, and carpenters. The rest were unskilled laborers. But all were motivated by the promise of riches in America.

They hoped to make a fortune and return to England within a year or two. They were not interested in farming or settling in Virginia permanently, despite the Crown's aspiration of establishing a permanent foothold in America. No women and children would join the colony initially. The goal of the first voyage was simply to explore and take possession of the region. But all those who signed on to the venture knew they faced life-threatening risks. Families bid farewell to their sons, husbands, and fathers, not knowing for certain they would see them again.

and on December 10th, the Royal Council in charge of the Virginia Company summoned the expedition's leaders to a meeting and handed them detailed instructions for the colony.

It was then that the men learned that a seven-man council would govern affairs in Virginia, and this council would elect a local president to a one-year term. The first settlement was to be located on a major river at least 100 miles from the ocean to reduce the risk of potential attacks from Spanish ships. And the settlers were tasked with looking for gold and silver, as well as finding a passage to the Pacific coast, believed to be located only a few hundred miles from the Atlantic coast.

To accomplish these goals, the company planned for the colonists to depend on the goodwill of local Indians, whom they hoped would provide guidance and food. Company leaders instructed settlers to exercise caution in their dealings with native inhabitants, declaring, "...you must have great care not to offend the naturals if you can avoid it, and employ some few of your company to trade with them for corn and other lasting vittles."

The company's instructions revealed how little the English knew about Virginia and its inhabitants, beyond information gleaned from the failed Roanoke venture two decades earlier. But despite their scattered knowledge, company leaders had high hopes of success.

On December 20th, 1606, three ships carrying 104 settlers set sail from London, putting the English and the Powhatan people on the brink of a collision that would change them all forever. But before the settlers even reached America, bitter infighting threatened to tear them apart.

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In December 1606, three ships quietly sailed down the Thames River and into the open waters off the southeastern coast of England. The largest of the three was the heavily armed Susan Constant, commanded by the expedition's most experienced mariner, Captain Christopher Newport. He was a successful privateer who'd made multiple voyages to the Caribbean, where he plundered Spanish towns and ships. The Virginia Company had put him in charge until the fleet reached their destination.

But the voyage began on a sour note. The journey to America was supposed to take roughly one month, but for six weeks storms held up the fleet on England's southeastern coast.

The flagship Susan Constant, roughly 100 feet long and 20 feet wide, was built for cargo, not people, forcing its 50 passengers to choose between the freezing winds above deck or the claustrophobic holds below. The two smaller ships had slightly more passenger space, but they fared worse than the Susan Constant in stormy waters. Eventually, the fleet managed to depart the English coast. But the stalled progress and cramped quarters allowed disease to fester and factions to form.

After only a short time at sea, on February 13, 1607, John Smith was arrested on board the flagship Susan Constance. He was accused of plotting to usurp the government, murder the council, and make himself king. Smith was strong-willed and outspoken, and he chafed under the command of men he disagreed with. His career as a soldier shaped his belief that rank should be won through merit rather than birth.

The incident that sparked his arrest was not recorded, but Smith likely ran afoul of Captain Newport, as well as Edward Mariah Wingfield, a pompous gentleman who expected deference from commoners like Smith. Once arrested, Smith was kept in irons and confined below deck.

Making matters worse, the royal council in charge of the Virginia Company had sowed uncertainty within the group by insisting that the identities of the colony's leadership remain secret. They sealed the names of the seven council members in a box and forbade the settlers from opening it until they arrived in America. It was a month and a half after Smith's arrest that the fleet dropped anchor in the Caribbean in late March.

Colonists went ashore to rest, fish, and hunt, but the break from their long, turbulent voyage did little to diffuse tensions.

Imagine it's March 1607 on the Caribbean island of Nevis, and you're one of the chief investors of a new colony planned for Virginia. The tropical midday sun beats down on you as you walk down the beach after taking a bath in a cold spring. This island is a welcome respite from your long travels. You stare down at the waves lapping against the shore, the rhythmic sound soothing your wary mind. But as you look up, the sight of freshly built gallows stops you in your tracks.

You push through a crowd to find Captain Christopher Newport standing beside the gallows. And next to him is John Smith, his hands bound and his expression defiant. Newport clears his throat. John Smith is a threat to the peace of this colony. He must be hanged at once. Panic races through your chest. You know you have to do something. Stop this!

Newport's gaze falls on you. This man has been nothing but trouble. If I don't make an example of him, we will lose any semblance of discipline. So you plan to hang him like a common criminal? You cannot make a unilateral decision like this. We have a council for a reason. Yes, a council that will not be sworn in until we reach Virginia. Until then, I am in charge. And as a commander of the fleet, I have authority to exact summary justice, particularly in cases of mutiny.

You take a step closer to Newport, dropping your voice so only he can hear. Look, Smith may be impertinent, but I have seen no evidence of mutiny. And regardless, we will need his military experience in Virginia. His knowledge of tactics and leadership is invaluable. Execute him, and you risk dooming us all. Newport's jaw tightens. Smith is nothing but an ill-bred upstart with illusions of grandeur.

You've had enough of this and turn around to face the crowd and raise your voice again. We cannot devolve into chaos before we've even begun. This colony needs every man here. Smith will not be hanged under my watch. The crowd's agreement adds weight to your words, so you turn back to Newport, who glares, his fists clenched at his sides. Very well. Smith, consider this your final warning. Cross me again and there will be no mercy.

Smith gives you a grateful nod as you grab him by the arm and pull him away from the gallows. But as you push through the crowd, a heavy weight settles in your chest. You fear that this colony is already too divided to succeed. When the English fleet went ashore on the island of Nevis, Captain Newport built gallows to hang John Smith. But Smith was spared when Bartholomew Gosnold intervened to save him. The incident revealed the deep animosity that had already developed among the colony's leaders.

A few days later, on April 10th, the fleet set out again. Traveling northwest, a violent storm caused the ships to lose their bearings for several days. But at last, when the sun rose on April 26th, a lookout spotted the Virginia coastline. Later that day, the fleet dropped anchor on the southern shore of the Chesapeake Bay. After four long months at sea, the colonists finally reached their destination.

Newport, Wingfield, and Gosnold went ashore with another two dozen men to explore. They were immediately impressed with what they found. One man noted, There were fair meadows and goodly tall trees, with such fresh waters running through the woods as I was almost ravished at the first sight thereof.

But when darkness fell and the landing party returned to their ships, a group of Indians emerged from the trees and unleashed a hail of arrows. Two Englishmen were injured. The colonists fired muskets in return and the attackers fled. But it was an ominous start to the colony.

Later that night, back on board the Susan Constant, Newport opened the sealed box containing the names of the seven-man council charged with governing the colony. Newport, Wingfield, and Gosnold were named. But much to Newport and Wingfield's horror, so was John Smith. The council members elected Wingfield as their president, but he refused to administer an oath of office to Smith, keeping him from taking his seat. This decision only further strained relations between the two men.

But with the leadership of the colony decided, the council turned its focus to taking possession of the area. Three days after their arrival, Newport erected a cross at the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay at a place he named Cape Henry in honor of the king's eldest son. It was a move to symbolically claim the land for the English crown.

And then, over the next two weeks, the colonists scouted the area in search of a secure location to plant their settlement. They traveled up a large river the native inhabitants called the Powhatan, and on May 14th, they decided to place their camp on a narrow, marshy peninsula 50 miles upriver. They called it Jamestown, in honor of King James I.

The site was uninhabited. Local tribes considered the area too swampy and isolated for agriculture or hunting. It was infested with mosquitoes, and the brackish tidal river water was unsuitable for drinking.

but for the English the location satisfied several needs. It was far enough from the coast to avoid attack from Spanish ships, which the colonists considered to be their greatest threat. They believed the narrow peninsula could easily be defended from attack by local Indians, and the water nearby was deep enough for the colonists to anchor their ships.

So soon, the settlers began unloading their cargo and setting up camp. But Newport had other goals in mind. Eager to fulfill the Virginia Company's instructions, he decided to lead a party on an exploratory voyage upriver, searching for mountains that might hold valuable minerals and a passage to the Pacific Ocean. Smith decided to join Newport, despite the animosity between the two men.

Traveling along the river, the party met friendly Indians who were eager to trade. The Englishmen had some rudimentary knowledge of the Algonquin language, having read the narratives of their predecessors at Roanoke. And from these local Indians, they learned about the great leader Powhatan, who ruled over multiple tribes. Newport was also pleased by the mention of mountains to the west that might contain copper or gold.

But roughly 60 miles upriver, the men discovered they could travel no further. John Smith wrote, We were intercepted with great craggy stones in the midst of the river, where the water fell so rudely, with such a violence, so that no boat could possibly pass. The party had reached the falls of the James River, the site of modern-day Richmond, Virginia.

Unable to continue, they landed on an island in the river and Newport had the men plant another cross in the ground to mark their achievement. He renamed the Powhatan River the James River, claiming it for the English king. When the colonist's Indian guide questioned him about this, Newport insisted that the wooden cross symbolized the peaceful union of Powhatan and himself. It was a blatant distortion of the truth.

Throughout the journey, Newport misled the Indians he encountered, encouraging the idea that the English were there solely for trade rather than permanent occupation.

But despite several peaceful encounters, the English would meet resistance from native inhabitants. While Newport's party was away upriver, Jamestown came under attack. On May 26, 1607, an alliance of five tribes, some 200 warriors in total, descended on the English settlement. They fired arrows through the tents, wounding ten and killing two. After an hour of attack, the settlers managed to scare the Indians off by firing one of their cannons.

This assault revealed the settlers' vulnerability. The next day, Newport, Smith, and the rest of the party returned to Jamestown and discussed with the rest of the council the need for stronger defenses. They put their men to work building a triangular-shaped fort with a cannon placed in each of the three corners. John Smith proved a hard worker with a strong knowledge of military fortifications, and so on June 10th, the council finally allowed him to take his seat as one of the colony's seven leaders.

By then, Newport was preparing to sail back to England in order to pick up more settlers and supplies. On the night of June 21st, he invited the rest of the council to dine with him. Seated on tree stumps and chests beside their tents, the men were in high spirits. In seven weeks, they had fortified their camp and planted a crop of wheat with seeds they had brought from England. The land they had settled on was rich with lumber, and the river was full of sturgeon, and they believed there was a chance that gold was hidden in the mountains to the west.

So the next day, Newport set sail with a letter from the colony's council to the Virginia Council in London, describing their accomplishments and Virginia's commercial potential. Comparing Virginia to the biblical promised land, the letter affirmed that the land would flow with milk and honey if given further support. Newport also carried a sample of ore for testing, hoping it contained gold.

But while Newport traveled to London to tell stories of the boundless riches to be found in Virginia, the settlers back in Jamestown faced a much harsher reality. As the weeks wore on, disease would ravage the settlement, spreading death and despair.

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In the summer of 1607, the Jamestown colonists scraped by on a meager diet. Each man received a daily ration of barley and wheat mixed with boiled water, which they supplemented with sturgeon and sea crabs they caught in nearby waters.

The unexpectedly long voyage to Virginia had depleted most of their food supplies. Captain Christopher Newport was not expected to return with more supplies until winter, and at the same time, scant progress was made in planting crops. The majority of the settlers were well-off gentlemen who considered farm work beneath them, and little did they know, they had arrived in Virginia at the start of the worst drought in 700 years.

But a more pressing problem was the brackish water that supplied the colony. In early August, disease swept through Jamestown, sending dozens of men to their deaths. One of the toughest losses was that of Bartholomew Gosnold, the most respected member of the council and the man who had saved John Smith from the gallows. And it wasn't only Gosnold who succumbed. Half of the settlers would be dead by fall. One colonist recalled, "...there were never Englishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in Virginia."

And as the weeks wore on, malnutrition and stress only intensified the colonists' conflicts. Tempers flared and accusations flew. Some wondered whether Jamestown's troubles were the result of deliberate sabotage. One blacksmith was sentenced to hang for striking council member John Ratcliffe. He managed to save himself by accusing another council member, Captain George Kendall, of spying for the Spanish. Despite a lack of evidence, Kendall was quickly convicted of treason and shot to death.

So with Newport away and Gosnold and Kendall dead, the colony's leadership quickly crumbled. Soon even the council president would find himself the target of settlers' suspicions.

Imagine it's September 11th, 1607, a sweltering afternoon in Jamestown. You're the president of the council, in charge of the colony, and your three fellow council members are seated around a table constructed out of barrels and wooden planks. Other settlers surround you, watching as John Ratcliffe, John Martin, and John Smith conduct a makeshift court hearing to determine your fate.

All eyes turn to Ratcliffe as he stands to address you. It is our duty as members of this council to ensure the good order of this colony. We gather here today to judge your worthiness to serve as president of the council. You meet his cold gaze, anger coursing through you. This is preposterous. This council elected me to a one-year term. That term is far from over. Nevertheless, we are here to discuss the charges against you.

Ratcliffe's expression darkens as murmurs ripple through the crowd.

What of your failure to attend church services? We cannot have an atheist in charge of this government. I am not an atheist. It is well known that you neglected to bring a Bible to Virginia. As I have explained, my Bible was lost during the journey here along with many other belongings.

Ratcliffe shrugs, unconvinced. Your clear lack of Protestant faith points to one disturbing conclusion, that you are plotting with the Spanish to destroy the colony from within. You rise from your seat, clenching your fists. This is absurd!

If anyone is plotting against the colony, it is the three of you. You are trying to undermine the lawful, legitimate authority and elect a triumvirate in its place. We seek only to protect this colony by restoring good governance. Good governance? The three of you seek only to advance your own ambitions. Smith is a rogue unworthy of the title of gentleman, Martin's laziness is well known by all, and you, Ratcliffe, are simply trying to take the role of president for yourself.

Ratcliffe raises a hand to silence the crowd. We are not here to listen to your complaints. We are here to decide the future of this colony, and it is clear that you are unfit to lead. I call for a vote to finalize your removal from the presidency and the council. All in favor?

John Smith and John Martin raise their hands without hesitation. Ratcliffe joins them, sealing your fate. His eyes gleam with triumph. You are hereby removed from your position as president. You will sail back to England as soon as it can be arranged. As the hearing dissolves, you're left alone at the table to contemplate your fate. You're stunned that these men would overthrow you so arbitrarily, and you fear their actions will do little to end the paranoia gripping this colony.

In September 1607, John Ratcliffe, John Smith, and John Martin voted to remove Council President Edward Moriah Wingfield from office. Ratcliffe replaced him as president. The men then confined Wingfield to a small boat on the river until he could be sent back to England.

But even under new leadership, as summer turned to fall, the colony's rations continued to dwindle. John Smith took it upon himself to secure new food sources for the settlement. He started taking parties out to trade with neighboring Indians for corn, and the colonists came to depend on his resourcefulness. Sometimes he bargained for corn, but other times he simply stole it.

In early December of 1607, Smith traveled up the Chickahominy River with a small party of men. Fifty miles up, he went ashore with two companions, J.U. Robinson and Thomas Emery. These men ran into a hunting party under the leadership of the great warrior O.P. Conkino, the younger brother of Chief of Chiefs Powhatan. The Indians captured Smith and killed Robinson and Emery.

They then marched Smith six miles to a nearby town, where Smith was fed a meal of bread and venison. Women and children performed dances celebrating Smith's capture and the killing of the two Englishmen. Meanwhile, Smith and Opie Conkino communicated as best they could.

After several weeks in captivity, Smith was marched to Powhatan's headquarters, twelve miles north of Jamestown. There he was brought before the Paramount chief. Powhatan wore a cloak made of raccoon skins and a string of large pearls around his neck. Smith later wrote about how he was impressed with the old man's grave and majestic countenance, which he admitted, drove me into admiration to see such a state in a naked savage. Powhatan welcomed Smith, assured him of friendship, and asked him why the Englishman had come to his lands.

In his answer, Smith lied and said they were forced to retreat to Chesapeake Bay to escape Spanish warships. He claimed that the Englishmen were camped in Jamestown while they made repairs to their ship. Hearing this, Powhatan told Smith that he and his fellow Englishmen would be guaranteed food and safety if they submitted to him.

What happened next would be debated for centuries. Writing years later, Smith described how he was about to be executed when Powhatan's favorite daughter, Pocahontas, then roughly 11 years old, intervened and saved his life. In all likelihood, Smith was actually put through a mock execution, in which he was symbolically killed and then reborn. Smith did not understand what was occurring was an elaborate adoption ceremony designed to bring him and his fellow Englishmen under Powhatan's authority.

This was a development Powhatan wanted because he recognized the power of English weaponry and wanted them as vassals, not enemies. In exchange for their submission, he planned to feed and sustain the English just as he sustained some thirty tribes. Smith likely agreed to Powhatan's terms—he was in no position to bargain—but he had no intention of submitting to Powhatan or halting plans to settle the area for England.

Soon after the ceremony, Powhatan released Smith, and after a month in captivity, Smith headed back to Jamestown, a changed man. He had traveled through the region more than any other Englishman, he had learned more about the Powhatan and their way of life, and he had seemingly gained the respect of the great chiefs Powhatan and Opikankanoe.

And on January 2nd, 1608, Smith walked back into the Jamestown Fort and discovered a colony in chaos. Disease had claimed even more men, and now only 38 of the original 104 settlers were still alive. During Smith's absence, Captain Gabriel Archer replaced him on the council. Archer resented Smith's return, so much so that he went to the extreme measure of blaming Smith for the deaths of Robinson and Emery.

Smith was tried, found guilty, and sentenced to hang the next day. This severe punishment underscored the deep divisions within the colony's leadership. After weeks at the mercy of strangers, Smith had escaped captivity only to find himself condemned by his own people. So as Smith prepared to face the gallows once again, the Jamestown colony was becoming weak and brittle, the population dwindling, and after a mere eight months, the English experiment in Virginia teetered on the edge of ruin.

From Wondery, this is episode one of our four-part series Jamestown from American History Tellers. On the next episode, a stray spark sets fire to the Jamestown settlement. Tensions between Powhatan and the colonists escalate. And in London, Virginia company leaders spearhead a massive fundraising and recruitment campaign for a new voyage to the New World.

If you like American History Tellers, you can binge all episodes early and ad-free right now by joining Wondery Plus in the Wondery app or on Apple Podcasts. Prime members can listen ad-free on Amazon Music. And before you go, tell us about yourself by filling out a short survey at wondery.com slash survey.

American History Tellers is hosted, edited, and produced by me, Lindsey Graham for Airship. Audio editing by Christian Paraga. Sound design by Molly Bond. Music by Lindsey Graham. Voice acting by Joe Hernandez-Kolsky and Victoria Rani. This

This episode is written by Ellie Stanton, edited by Dorian Marina, produced by Alita Rozanski. Managing producers are Desi Blaylock and Matt Gant. Senior managing producer, Ryan Moore. Senior producer, Andy Herman. Executive producers are Jenny Lauer-Beckman, Marsha Louis, and Erin O'Flaherty for Wondery.

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